Tonga
The archipelago of "The Friendly Islands" was united into a
Polynesian kingdom in 1845. It became a constitutional monarchy in
1875 and a British protectorate in 1900. Tonga acquired its
independence in 1970 and became a member of the Commonwealth of
Nations. It remains the only monarchy in the Pacific.
Trinidad and Tobago
The islands came under British control in the
19th century; independence was granted in 1962. The country is one
of the most prosperous in the Caribbean, thanks largely to petroleum
and natural gas production and processing. Tourism, mostly in
Tobago, is targeted for expansion and is growing.
Tromelin Island
First explored by the French in 1776, the island
came under the jurisdiction of Reunion in 1814. At present, it
serves as a sea turtle sanctuary and is the site of an important
meteorological station.
Tunisia
Following independence from France in 1956, President Habib
BOURGUIBA established a strict one-party state. He dominated the
country for 31 years, repressing Islamic fundamentalism and
establishing rights for women unmatched by any other Arab nation. In
recent years, Tunisia has taken a moderate, non-aligned stance in
its foreign relations. Domestically, it has sought to defuse rising
pressure for a more open political society.
Turkey
Present-day Turkey was created in 1923 from the Turkish
remnants of the Ottoman Empire. Soon thereafter, the country
instituted secular laws to replace traditional religious fiats. In
1945 Turkey joined the UN, and in 1952 it became a member of NATO.
Turkey intervened militarily on Cyprus in 1974 to protect Turkish
Cypriots and prevent a Greek takeover of the island; the northern 37
percent of the island remains under Turkish Cypriot control.
Relations between the two countries remain strained, but have begun
to improve over the past few years. In 1984, the Kurdistan Workers'
Party (PKK), a Marxist-Leninist, separatist group, initiated an
insurgency in southeast Turkey, often using terrorist tactics to try
to attain its goal of an independent Kurdistan. The group - whose
leader, Abdullah OCALAN, was captured in Kenya in February 1999 -
has observed a unilateral cease-fire since September 1999, although
there have been occasional clashes between Turkish military units
and some of the 4,000-5,000 armed PKK militants, most of whom
currently are encamped in northern Iraq. The PKK changed its name to
the Kurdistan Freedom and Democracy Congress (KADEK) in April 2002.
Turkmenistan
Annexed by Russia between 1865 and 1885, Turkmenistan
became a Soviet republic in 1925. It achieved its independence upon
the dissolution of the USSR in 1991. President NIYAZOV retains
absolute control over the country and opposition is not tolerated.
Extensive hydrocarbon/natural gas reserves could prove a boon to
this underdeveloped country if extraction and delivery projects can
be worked out.
Turks and Caicos Islands
The islands were part of the UK's Jamaican
colony until 1962, when they assumed the status of a separate crown
colony upon Jamaica's independence. The governor of The Bahamas
oversaw affairs from 1965 to 1973. With Bahamian independence, the
islands received a separate governor in 1973. Although independence
was agreed upon for 1982, the policy was reversed and the islands
are presently a British overseas territory.
Tuvalu
In 1974, ethnic differences within the British colony of the
Gilbert and Ellice Islands caused the Polynesians of the Ellice
Islands to vote for separation from the Micronesians of the Gilbert
Islands. The following year, the Ellice Islands became the separate
British colony of Tuvalu. Independence was granted in 1978. In 2000,
Tuvalu negotiated a contract leasing its Internet domain name ".tv"
for $50 million in royalties over the next dozen years.
Uganda
Uganda achieved independence from the UK in 1962. The
dictatorial regime of Idi AMIN (1971-79) was responsible for the
deaths of some 300,000 opponents; guerrilla war and human rights
abuses under Milton OBOTE (1980-85) claimed at least another 100,000
lives. During the 1990s, the government promulgated non-party
presidential and legislative elections.
Ukraine
Ukraine was the center of the first Slavic state, Kievan
Rus, which during the 10th and 11th centuries was the largest and
most powerful state in Europe. Weakened by internecine quarrels and
Mongol invasions, Kievan Rus was incorporated into the Grand Duchy
of Lithuania and eventually into the Polish-Lithuanian Commonwealth.
The cultural and religious legacy of Kievan Rus laid the foundation
for Ukrainian nationalism through subsequent centuries. A new
Ukrainian state, the Cossack Hetmanate, was established during the
mid-17th century after an uprising against the Poles. Despite
continuous Muscovite pressure, the Hetmanate managed to remain
autonomous for well over 100 years. During the latter part of the
18th century, most Ukrainian ethnographic territory was absorbed by
the Russian Empire. Following the collapse of czarist Russia in
1917, Ukraine was able to bring about a short-lived period of
independence (1917-1920), but was reconquered and forced to endure a
brutal Soviet rule that engineered two artificial famines (1921-22
and 1932-33) in which over 8 million died. In World War II, German
and Soviet armies were responsible for some 7 to 8 million more
deaths. Although independence was achieved in 1991 with the
dissolution of the USSR, true freedom remains elusive, as many of
the former Soviet elite remain entrenched, stalling efforts at
economic reform, privatization, and civil liberties.