Howland Island
Discovered by the US early in the 19th century, the
island was officially claimed by the US in 1857. Both US and British
companies mined for guano until about 1890. Earhart Light is a day
beacon near the middle of the west coast that was partially
destroyed during World War II, but has since been rebuilt; it is
named in memory of the famed aviatrix Amelia EARHART. The island is
administered by the US Department of the Interior as a National
Wildlife Refuge.
Hungary
Hungary was part of the polyglot Austro-Hungarian Empire,
which collapsed during World War I. The country fell under Communist
rule following World War II. In 1956, a revolt and announced
withdrawal from the Warsaw Pact were met with a massive military
intervention by Moscow. Under the leadership of Janos KADAR in 1968,
Hungary began liberalizing its economy, introducing so-called
"goulash Communism." Hungary held its first multiparty elections in
1990 and initiated a free market economy. It joined NATO in 1999 and
the EU in 2004.
Iceland
Settled by Norwegian and Celtic (Scottish and Irish)
immigrants during the late 9th and 10th centuries A.D., Iceland
boasts the world's oldest functioning legislative assembly, the
Althing, established in 930. Independent for over 300 years, Iceland
was subsequently ruled by Norway and Denmark. Fallout from the Askja
volcano of 1875 devastated the Icelandic economy and caused
widespread famine. Over the next quarter century, 20% of the
island's population emigrated, mostly to Canada and the US. Limited
home rule from Denmark was granted in 1874 and complete independence
attained in 1944. Literacy, longevity, income, and social cohesion
are first-rate by world standards.
India
The Indus Valley civilization, one of the oldest in the world,
dates back at least 5,000 years. Aryan tribes from the northwest
invaded about 1500 B.C.; their merger with the earlier inhabitants
created the classical Indian culture. Arab incursions starting in
the 8th century and Turkish in the 12th were followed by European
traders, beginning in the late 15th century. By the 19th century,
Britain had assumed political control of virtually all Indian lands.
Indian armed forces in the British army played a vital role in both
World Wars. Nonviolent resistance to British colonialism under
Mohandas GANDHI and Jawaharlal NEHRU led to independence in 1947.
The subcontinent was divided into the secular state of India and the
smaller Muslim state of Pakistan. A third war between the two
countries in 1971 resulted in East Pakistan becoming the separate
nation of Bangladesh. Fundamental concerns in India include the
ongoing dispute with Pakistan over Kashmir, massive overpopulation,
environmental degradation, extensive poverty, and ethnic and
religious strife, all this despite impressive gains in economic
investment and output.
Indian Ocean
The Indian Ocean is the third largest of the world's
five oceans (after the Pacific Ocean and Atlantic Ocean, but larger
than the Southern Ocean and Arctic Ocean). Four critically important
access waterways are the Suez Canal (Egypt), Bab el Mandeb
(Djibouti-Yemen), Strait of Hormuz (Iran-Oman), and Strait of
Malacca (Indonesia-Malaysia). The decision by the International
Hydrographic Organization in the spring of 2000 to delimit a fifth
ocean, the Southern Ocean, removed the portion of the Indian Ocean
south of 60 degrees south.
Indonesia
The Dutch began to colonize Indonesia in the early 17th
century; the islands were occupied by Japan from 1942 to 1945.
Indonesia declared its independence after Japan's surrender, but it
required four years of intermittent negotiations, recurring
hostilities, and UN mediation before the Netherlands agreed to
relinquish its colony. Indonesia is the world's largest archipelagic
state. Current issues include: alleviating widespread poverty,
preventing terrorism, continuing the transition to popularly-elected
governments after four decades of authoritarianism, implementing
reforms of the banking sector, addressing charges of cronyism and
corruption, holding the military and police accountable for human
rights violations, and resolving armed separatist movements in Aceh
and Papua.
Iran
Known as Persia until 1935, Iran became an Islamic republic in
1979 after the ruling monarchy was overthrown and the shah was
forced into exile. Conservative clerical forces established a
theocratic system of government with ultimate political authority
nominally vested in a learned religious scholar. Iranian-US
relations have been strained since a group of Iranian students
seized the US Embassy in Tehran on 4 November 1979 and held it until
20 January 1981. During 1980-88, Iran fought a bloody, indecisive
war with Iraq that eventually expanded into the Persian Gulf and led
to clashes between US Navy and Iranian military forces between
1987-1988. Iran has been designated a state sponsor of terrorism for
its activities in Lebanon and elsewhere in the world and remains
subject to US economic sanctions and export controls because of its
continued involvement. Following the elections of a reformist
President and Majlis in the late 1990s, attempts to foster political
reform in response to popular dissatisfaction have floundered as
conservative politicians have prevented reform measures from being
enacted, increased repressive measures, and consolidated their
control over the government.
Iraq
Formerly part of the Ottoman Empire, Iraq was occupied by
Britain during the course of World War I; in 1920, it was declared a
League of Nations mandate under UK administration. In stages over
the next dozen years, Iraq attained its independence as a kingdom in
1932. A "republic" was proclaimed in 1958, but in actuality a series
of military strongmen ruled the country, the latest was SADDAM
Husayn. Territorial disputes with Iran led to an inconclusive and
costly eight-year war (1980-88). In August 1990, Iraq seized Kuwait,
but was expelled by US-led, UN coalition forces during the Gulf War
of January-February 1991. Following Kuwait's liberation, the UN
Security Council (UNSC) required Iraq to scrap all weapons of mass
destruction and long-range missiles and to allow UN verification
inspections. Continued Iraqi noncompliance with UNSC resolutions
over a period of 12 years resulted in the US-led invasion of Iraq in
March 2003 and the ouster of the SADDAM Husayn regime. Coalition
forces remain in Iraq, helping to restore degraded infrastructure
and facilitating the establishment of a freely elected government,
while simultaneously dealing with a robust insurgency. The Coalition
Provisional Authority transferred sovereignty to the Iraqi Interim
Government (IG) in June 2004 and the election of its president,
Ghazi al-Ujayl al-YAWR, was held in January 2005.
Ireland
Celtic tribes settled on the island from 600-150 B.C.
Invasions by Norsemen that began in the late 8th century were
finally ended when King Brian BORU defeated the Danes in 1014.
English invasions began in the 12th century and set off more than
seven centuries of Anglo-Irish struggle marked by fierce rebellions
and harsh repressions. A failed 1916 Easter Monday Rebellion touched
off several years of guerrilla warfare that in 1921 resulted in
independence from the UK for 26 southern counties; six northern
(Ulster) counties remained part of the United Kingdom. In 1948
Ireland withdrew from the British Commonwealth; it joined the
European Community in 1973. Irish governments have sought the
peaceful unification of Ireland and have cooperated with Britain
against terrorist groups. A peace settlement for Northern Ireland,
known as the Good Friday Agreement and approved in 1998, is being
implemented with some difficulties.
Israel
Following World War II, the British withdrew from their
mandate of Palestine, and the UN partitioned the area into Arab and
Jewish states, an arrangement rejected by the Arabs. Subsequently,
the Israelis defeated the Arabs in a series of wars without ending
the deep tensions between the two sides. The territories occupied by
Israel since the 1967 war are not included in the Israel country
profile, unless otherwise noted. On 25 April 1982, Israel withdrew
from the Sinai pursuant to the 1979 Israel-Egypt Peace Treaty.
Israel and Palestinian officials signed on 13 September 1993 a
Declaration of Principles (also known as the "Oslo accords") guiding
an interim period of Palestinian self-rule. Outstanding territorial
and other disputes with Jordan were resolved in the 26 October 1994
Israel-Jordan Treaty of Peace. In addition, on 25 May 2000, Israel
withdrew unilaterally from southern Lebanon, which it had occupied
since 1982. In keeping with the framework established at the Madrid
Conference in October 1991, bilateral negotiations were conducted
between Israel and Palestinian representatives and Syria to achieve
a permanent settlement. On 24 June 2002, US President BUSH laid out
a "road map" for resolving the Israeli-Palestinian conflict, which
envisions a two-state solution. However, progress toward a permanent
status agreement has been undermined by Palestinian-Israeli violence
ongoing since September 2000. The conflict may have reached a
turning point with the election in January 2005 of Mahmud ABBAS as
the new Palestinian leader following the November 2004 death of
Yasir ARAFAT.