Lesotho
Basutoland was renamed the Kingdom of Lesotho upon
independence from the UK in 1966. King MOSHOESHOE was exiled in
1990. Constitutional government was restored in 1993 after 23 years
of military rule. In 1998, violent protests and a military mutiny
following a contentious election prompted a brief but bloody South
African military intervention. Constitutional reforms have since
restored political stability; peaceful parliamentary elections were
held in 2002.
Liberia
In August 2003, a comprehensive peace agreement ended 14
years of civil war and prompted the resignation of former president
Charles TAYLOR, who was exiled to Nigeria. The National Transitional
Government of Liberia (NTGL) - which is composed of rebel,
government, and civil society groups - assumed control in October
2003. Chairman Gyude BRYANT, who was given a two-year mandate to
oversee efforts to rebuild Liberia, heads the new government. The
United Nations Mission in Liberia (UNMIL), which maintains a strong
presence throughout the country, completed a disarmament program for
former combatants in late 2004, but the security situation is still
volatile and the process of rebuilding the social and economic
structure of this war-torn country remains sluggish.
Libya
From the earliest days of his rule following his 1969 military
coup, Col. Muammar Abu Minyar al-QADHAFI has espoused his own
political system, the Third Universal Theory. The system is a
combination of socialism and Islam derived in part from tribal
practices and is supposed to be implemented by the Libyan people
themselves in a unique form of "direct democracy." QADHAFI has
always seen himself as a revolutionary and visionary leader. He used
oil funds during the 1970s and 1980s to promote his ideology outside
Libya, supporting subversives and terrorists abroad to hasten the
end of Marxism and capitalism. In addition, beginning in 1973, he
engaged in military operations in northern Chad's Aozou Strip - to
gain access to minerals and to use as a base of influence in Chadian
politics - but was forced to retreat in 1987. UN sanctions in 1992
isolated QADHAFI politically following the downing of Pan AM Flight
103 over Lockerbie, Scotland. Libyan support for terrorism appears
to have decreased after the sanction imposition. During the 1990s,
QADHAFI also began to rebuild his relationships with Europe. UN
sanctions were suspended in April 1999 and finally lifted in
September 2003 after Libya resolved the Lockerbie case. In December
2003, Libya announced that it had agreed to reveal and end its
programs to develop weapons of mass destruction, and QADHAFI has
made significant strides in normalizing relations with western
nations since then. He has received various Western European leaders
as well as many working-level and commercial delegations, and made
his first trip to Western Europe in 15 years when he traveled to
Brussels in April 2004. QADHAFI also finally resolved in 2004
several outstanding cases against his government for terrorist
activities in the 1980s by paying compensation to the families of
victims of the UTA and La Belle disco bombings.
Liechtenstein
The Principality of Liechtenstein was established
within the Holy Roman Empire in 1719; it became a sovereign state in
1806. Until the end of World War I, it was closely tied to Austria,
but the economic devastation caused by that conflict forced
Liechtenstein to enter into a customs and monetary union with
Switzerland. Since World War II (in which Liechtenstein remained
neutral), the country's low taxes have spurred outstanding economic
growth. Shortcomings in banking regulatory oversight have resulted
in concerns about the use of the financial institutions for money
laundering. Liechtenstein has, however, implemented new
anti-money-laundering legislation and recently concluded a Mutual
Legal Assistance Treaty with the US.
Lithuania
Independent between the two World Wars, Lithuania was
annexed by the USSR in 1940. On 11 March 1990, Lithuania became the
first of the Soviet republics to declare its independence, but
Moscow did not recognize this proclamation until September of 1991
(following the abortive coup in Moscow). The last Russian troops
withdrew in 1993. Lithuania subsequently restructured its economy
for integration into Western European institutions; it joined both
NATO and the EU in the spring of 2004.
Luxembourg
Founded in 963, Luxembourg became a grand duchy in 1815
and an independent state under the Netherlands. It lost more than
half of its territory to Belgium in 1839, but gained a larger
measure of autonomy. Full independence was attained in 1867. Overrun
by Germany in both World Wars, it ended its neutrality in 1948 when
it entered into the Benelux Customs Union and when it joined NATO
the following year. In 1957, Luxembourg became one of the six
founding countries of the European Economic Community (later the
European Union), and in 1999 it joined the euro currency area.
Macau
Colonized by the Portuguese in the 16th century, Macau was the
first European settlement in the Far East. Pursuant to an agreement
signed by China and Portugal on 13 April 1987, Macau became the
Macau Special Administrative Region (SAR) of China on 20 December
1999. China has promised that, under its "one country, two systems"
formula, China's socialist economic system will not be practiced in
Macau, and that Macau will enjoy a high degree of autonomy in all
matters except foreign and defense affairs for the next 50 years.
Macedonia
International recognition of Macedonia's independence from
Yugoslavia in 1991 was delayed by Greece's objection to the new
state's use of what it considered a Hellenic name and symbols.
Greece finally lifted its trade blockade in 1995 and the two
countries agreed to normalize relations, although differences over
Macedonia's name remain. The undetermined status of neighboring
Kosovo, implementation of the Framework Agreement - which ended the
2001 ethnic Albanian armed insurgency - and a weak economy continue
to be challenges for Macedonia.
Madagascar
Formerly an independent kingdom, Madagascar became a
French colony in 1896, but regained its independence in 1960. During
1992-93, free presidential and National Assembly elections were
held, ending 17 years of single-party rule. In 1997, in the second
presidential race, Didier RATSIRAKA, the leader during the 1970s and
1980s, was returned to the presidency. The 2001 presidential
election was contested between the followers of Didier RATSIRAKA and
Marc RAVALOMANANA, nearly causing secession of half of the country.
In April 2002, the High Constitutional Court announced RAVALOMANANA
the winner.
Malawi
Established in 1891, the British protectorate of Nyasaland
became the independent nation of Malawi in 1964. After three decades
of one-party rule under President Hastings Kamuzu BANDA the country
held multiparty elections in 1994, under a provisional constitution,
which came into full effect the following year. Current President
Bingu wa MUTHARIKA, elected in May 2004 after the previous president
was unable to amend the constitution to permit another term, has
struggled to assert his authority against his predecessor, who still
leads their shared political party. MATHARIKA's anti-corruption
efforts have led to several high-level arrests but no convictions.
Increasing corruption, population growth, increasing pressure on
agricultural lands, and HIV/AIDS pose major problems for the country.