Papua New Guinea
The eastern half of the island of New Guinea -
second largest in the world - was divided between Germany (north)
and the UK (south) in 1885. The latter area was transferred to
Australia in 1902, which occupied the northern portion during World
War I and continued to administer the combined areas until
independence in 1975. A nine-year secessionist revolt on the island
of Bougainville ended in 1997 after claiming some 20,000 lives.
Paracel Islands
The Paracel Islands are surrounded by productive
fishing grounds and by potential oil and gas reserves. In 1932,
French Indochina annexed the islands and set up a weather station on
Pattle Island; maintenance was continued by its successor, Vietnam.
China has occupied the Paracel Islands since 1974, when its troops
seized a South Vietnamese garrison occupying the western islands.
The islands are claimed by Taiwan and Vietnam.
Paraguay
In the disastrous War of the Triple Alliance (1865-70),
Paraguay lost two-thirds of all adult males and much of its
territory. It stagnated economically for the next half century. In
the Chaco War of 1932-35, large, economically important areas were
won from Bolivia. The 35-year military dictatorship of Alfredo
STROESSNER was overthrown in 1989, and, despite a marked increase in
political infighting in recent years, relatively free and regular
presidential elections have been held since then.
Peru
Ancient Peru was the seat of several prominent Andean
civilizations, most notably that of the Incas whose empire was
captured by the Spanish conquistadors in 1533. Peruvian independence
was declared in 1821, and remaining Spanish forces defeated in 1824.
After a dozen years of military rule, Peru returned to democratic
leadership in 1980, but experienced economic problems and the growth
of a violent insurgency. President Alberto FUJIMORI's election in
1990 ushered in a decade that saw a dramatic turnaround in the
economy and significant progress in curtailing guerrilla activity.
Nevertheless, the president's increasing reliance on authoritarian
measures and an economic slump in the late 1990s generated mounting
dissatisfaction with his regime. FUJIMORI won reelection to a third
term in the spring of 2000, but international pressure and
corruption scandals led to his ouster by Congress in November of
that year. A caretaker government oversaw new elections in the
spring of 2001, which ushered in Alejandro TOLEDO as the new head of
government; his presidency has been hampered by allegations of
corruption.
Philippines
The Philippine Islands became a Spanish colony during
the 16th century; they were ceded to the US in 1898 following the
Spanish-American War. In 1935 the Philippines became a
self-governing commonwealth. Manuel QUEZON was elected President and
was tasked with preparing the country for independence after a
10-year transition. In 1942 the islands fell under Japanese
occupation during WWII, and US forces and Filipinos fought together
during 1944-45 to regain control. On 4 July 1946 the Philippines
attained their independence. The 21-year rule of Ferdinand MARCOS
ended in 1986, when a widespread popular rebellion forced him into
exile and installed Corazon AQUINO as president. Her presidency was
hampered by several coup attempts, which prevented a return to full
political stability and economic development. Fidel RAMOS was
elected president in 1992 and his administration was marked by
greater stability and progress on economic reforms. In 1992, the US
closed its last military bases on the islands. Joseph ESTRADA was
elected president in 1998, but was succeeded by his vice-president,
Gloria MACAPAGAL-ARROYO, in January 2001 after Estrada's stormy
impeachment trial on corruption charges broke down and widespread
demonstrations led to his ouster. MACAPAGAL-ARROYO was elected to a
six-year term in May 2004. The Philippine Government faces threats
from armed communist insurgencies and from Muslim separtists in the
south.
Pitcairn Islands
Pitcairn Island was discovered in 1767 by the
British and settled in 1790 by the Bounty mutineers and their
Tahitian companions. Pitcairn was the first Pacific island to become
a British colony (in 1838) and today remains the last vestige of
that empire in the South Pacific. Outmigration, primarily to New
Zealand, has thinned the population from a peak of 233 in 1937 to
less than 50 today.
Poland
Poland is an ancient nation that was conceived around the
middle of the 10th century. Its golden age occurred in the 16th
century. During the following century, the strengthening of the
gentry and internal disorders weakened the nation. In a series of
agreements between 1772 and 1795, Russia, Prussia, and Austria
partitioned Poland amongst themselves. Poland regained its
independence in 1918 only to be overrun by Germany and the Soviet
Union in World War II. It became a Soviet satellite state following
the war, but its government was comparatively tolerant and
progressive. Labor turmoil in 1980 led to the formation of the
independent trade union "Solidarity" that over time became a
political force and by 1990 had swept parliamentary elections and
the presidency. A "shock therapy" program during the early 1990s
enabled the country to transform its economy into one of the most
robust in Central Europe, but Poland currently suffers low GDP
growth and high unemployment. Solidarity suffered a major defeat in
the 2001 parliamentary elections when it failed to elect a single
deputy to the lower house of Parliament, and the new leaders of the
Solidarity Trade Union subsequently pledged to reduce the Trade
Union's political role. Poland joined NATO in 1999 and the European
Union in 2004.
Portugal
Following its heyday as a world power during the 15th and
16th centuries, Portugal lost much of its wealth and status with the
destruction of Lisbon in a 1755 earthquake, occupation during the
Napoleonic Wars, and the independence in 1822 of Brazil as a colony.
A 1910 revolution deposed the monarchy; for most of the next six
decades, repressive governments ran the country. In 1974, a
left-wing military coup installed broad democratic reforms. The
following year, Portugal granted independence to all of its African
colonies. Portugal is a founding member of NATO and entered the EC
(now the EU) in 1986.
Puerto Rico
Populated for centuries by aboriginal peoples, the
island was claimed by the Spanish Crown in 1493 following Columbus'
second voyage to the Americas. In 1898, after 400 years of colonial
rule that saw the indigenous population nearly exterminated and
African slave labor introduced, Puerto Rico was ceded to the US as a
result of the Spanish-American War. Puerto Ricans were granted US
citizenship in 1917. Popularly-elected governors have served since
1948. In 1952, a constitution was enacted providing for internal
self government. In plebiscites held in 1967, 1993, and 1998, voters
chose to retain commonwealth status.
Qatar
Ruled by the Al Thani family since the mid-1800s, Qatar
transformed itself from a poor British protectorate noted mainly for
pearling into an independent state with significant oil and natural
gas revenues. During the late 1980s and early 1990s, the Qatari
economy was crippled by a continuous siphoning off of petroleum
revenues by the amir, who had ruled the country since 1972. He was
overthrown by his son, the current Amir HAMAD bin Khalifa Al Thani,
in a bloodless coup in 1995. In 2001, Qatar resolved its
longstanding border disputes with both Bahrain and Saudi Arabia. Oil
and natural gas revenues enable Qatar to have one of the highest per
capita incomes in the world.