Ireland
Celtic tribes arrived on the island between 600-150 B.C.
Invasions by Norsemen that began in the late 8th century were
finally ended when King Brian BORU defeated the Danes in 1014.
English invasions began in the 12th century and set off more than
seven centuries of Anglo-Irish struggle marked by fierce rebellions
and harsh repressions. A failed 1916 Easter Monday Rebellion touched
off several years of guerrilla warfare that in 1921 resulted in
independence from the UK for 26 southern counties; six northern
(Ulster) counties remained part of the United Kingdom. In 1948
Ireland withdrew from the British Commonwealth; it joined the
European Community in 1973. Irish governments have sought the
peaceful unification of Ireland and have cooperated with Britain
against terrorist groups. A peace settlement for Northern Ireland,
known as the Good Friday Agreement and approved in 1998, is being
implemented with some difficulties.
Israel
Following World War II, the British withdrew from their
mandate of Palestine, and the UN partitioned the area into Arab and
Jewish states, an arrangement rejected by the Arabs. Subsequently,
the Israelis defeated the Arabs in a series of wars without ending
the deep tensions between the two sides. The territories occupied by
Israel since the 1967 war are not included in the Israel country
profile, unless otherwise noted. On 25 April 1982, Israel withdrew
from the Sinai pursuant to the 1979 Israel-Egypt Peace Treaty.
Israel and Palestinian officials signed on 13 September 1993 a
Declaration of Principles (also known as the "Oslo accords") guiding
an interim period of Palestinian self-rule. Outstanding territorial
and other disputes with Jordan were resolved in the 26 October 1994
Israel-Jordan Treaty of Peace. In addition, on 25 May 2000, Israel
withdrew unilaterally from southern Lebanon, which it had occupied
since 1982. In keeping with the framework established at the Madrid
Conference in October 1991, bilateral negotiations were conducted
between Israel and Palestinian representatives and Syria to achieve
a permanent settlement. On 24 June 2002, US President BUSH laid out
a "road map" for resolving the Israeli-Palestinian conflict, which
envisions a two-state solution. However, progress toward a permanent
status agreement has been undermined by Palestinian-Israeli violence
ongoing since September 2000. The conflict may have reached a
turning point with the election in January 2005 of Mahmud ABBAS as
the new Palestinian leader following the November 2004 death of
Yasir ARAFAT.
Italy
Italy became a nation-state in 1861 when the city-states of
the peninsula, along with Sardinia and Sicily, were united under
King Victor EMMANUEL II. An era of parliamentary government came to
a close in the early 1920s when Benito MUSSOLINI established a
Fascist dictatorship. His disastrous alliance with Nazi Germany led
to Italy's defeat in World War II. A democratic republic replaced
the monarchy in 1946 and economic revival followed. Italy was a
charter member of NATO and the European Economic Community (EEC). It
has been at the forefront of European economic and political
unification, joining the Economic and Monetary Union in 1999.
Persistent problems include illegal immigration, organized crime,
corruption, high unemployment, sluggish economic growth, and the low
incomes and technical standards of southern Italy compared with the
prosperous north.
Jamaica
Jamaica gained full independence within the British
Commonwealth in 1962. Deteriorating economic conditions during the
1970s led to recurrent violence and a drop off in tourism. Elections
in 1980 saw the democratic socialists voted out of office. Political
violence marred elections during the 1990s.
Jan Mayen
This desolate, mountainous island was named after a Dutch
whaling captain who indisputably discovered it in 1614 (earlier
claims are inconclusive). Visited only occasionally by seal hunters
and trappers over the following centuries, the island came under
Norwegian sovereignty in 1929. The long dormant Haakon VII
Toppen/Beerenberg volcano resumed activity in 1970; it is the
northernmost active volcano on earth.
Japan
In 1603, a Tokugawa shogunate (military dictatorship) ushered
in a long period of isolation from foreign influence in order to
secure its power. For 250 years this policy enabled Japan to enjoy
stability and a flowering of its indigenous culture. Following the
Treaty of Kanagawa with the United States in 1854, Japan opened its
ports and began to intensively modernize and industrialize. During
the late 19th and early 20th centuries, Japan became a regional
power that was able to defeat the forces of both China and Russia.
It occupied Korea, Formosa (Taiwan), and southern Sakhalin Island.
In 1933 Japan occupied Manchuria and in 1937 it launched a
full-scale invasion of China. Japan attacked US forces in 1941 -
triggering America's entry into World War II - and soon occupied
much of East and Southeast Asia. After its defeat in World War II,
Japan recovered to become an economic power and a staunch ally of
the US. While the emperor retains his throne as a symbol of national
unity, actual power rests in networks of powerful politicians,
bureaucrats, and business executives. The economy experienced a
major slowdown starting in the 1990s following three decades of
unprecedented growth, but Japan still remains a major economic
power, both in Asia and globally. In 2005, Japan began a two-year
term as a non-permanent member of the UN Security Council.
Jarvis Island
First discovered by the British in 1821, the
uninhabited island was annexed by the US in 1858, but abandoned in
1879 after tons of guano had been removed. The UK annexed the island
in 1889, but never carried out plans for further exploitation. The
US occupied and reclaimed the island in 1935. Abandoned after World
War II, the island is currently a National Wildlife Refuge
administered by the US Department of the Interior; a day beacon is
situated near the middle of the west coast.
Jersey
The island of Jersey and the other Channel Islands represent
the last remnants of the medieval Dukedom of Normandy that held sway
in both France and England. These islands were the only British soil
occupied by German troops in World War II.
Johnston Atoll
Both the US and the Kingdom of Hawaii annexed
Johnston Atoll in 1858, but it was the US that mined the guano
deposits until the late 1880s. Johnston and Sand Islands were
designated wildlife refuges in 1926. The US Navy took over the atoll
in 1934, and subsequently the US Air Force assumed control in 1948.
The site was used for high-altitude nuclear tests in the 1950s and
1960s, and until late in 2000 the atoll was maintained as a storage
and disposal site for chemical weapons. Munitions destruction is now
complete. Cleanup and closure of the facility was completed in 2004.
Jordan
For most of its history since independence from British
administration in 1946, Jordan was ruled by King HUSSEIN (1953-99).
A pragmatic ruler, he successfully navigated competing pressures
from the major powers (US, USSR, and UK), various Arab states,
Israel, and a large internal Palestinian population, despite several
wars and coup attempts. In 1989 he reinstituted parliamentary
elections and gradual political liberalization; in 1994 he signed a
formal peace treaty with Israel. King ABDALLAH II - the eldest son
of King HUSSEIN and Princess MUNA - assumed the throne following his
father's death in February 1999. Since then, he has consolidated his
power and undertaken an aggressive economic reform program. Jordan
acceded to the World Trade Organization in 2000, and began to
participate in the European Free Trade Association in 2001. After a
two-year delay, parliamentary and municipal elections took place in
the summer of 2003. The Prime Minister and government appointed in
April 2005 declared they would build upon the previous government's
achievements to respect political and human rights and improve
living standards.