Antarctica
Speculation over the existence of a "southern land" was
not confirmed until the early 1820s when British and American
commercial operators and British and Russian national expeditions
began exploring the Antarctic Peninsula region and other areas south
of the Antarctic Circle. Not until 1840 was it established that
Antarctica was indeed a continent and not just a group of islands.
Several exploration "firsts" were achieved in the early 20th
century. Following World War II, there was an upsurge in scientific
research on the continent. A number of countries have set up
year-round research stations on Antarctica. Seven have made
territorial claims, but not all countries recognize these claims. In
order to form a legal framework for the activities of nations on the
continent, an Antarctic Treaty was negotiated that neither denies
nor gives recognition to existing territorial claims; signed in
1959, it entered into force in 1961.
Antigua and Barbuda
The Siboney were the first to inhabit the
islands of Antigua and Barbuda in 2400 B.C., but Arawak Indians
populated the islands when Columbus landed on his second voyage in
1493. Early settlements by the Spanish and French were succeeded by
the English who formed a colony in 1667. Slavery, established to run
the sugar plantations on Antigua, was abolished in 1834. The islands
became an independent state within the British Commonwealth of
Nations in 1981.
Arctic Ocean
The Arctic Ocean is the smallest of the world's five
oceans (after the Pacific Ocean, Atlantic Ocean, Indian Ocean, and
the recently delimited Southern Ocean). The Northwest Passage (US
and Canada) and Northern Sea Route (Norway and Russia) are two
important seasonal waterways. A sparse network of air, ocean, river,
and land routes circumscribes the Arctic Ocean.
Argentina
In 1816, the United Provinces of the Rio Plata declared
their independence from Spain. Eventually, Bolivia, Paraguay, and
Uruguay went their own way, but the area that remained became
Argentina. The country's population and culture were subsequently
heavily shaped by immigrants from throughout Europe, but most
particularly Italy and Spain, which provided the largest percentage
of newcomers from 1860 to 1930. Up until about the mid-20th century,
much of Argentina's history was dominated by periods of internal
political conflict between conservatives and liberals and between
civilian and military factions. After World War II, an era of
Peronist authoritarian rule and interference in subsequent
governments was followed by a military junta that took power in
1976. Democracy returned in 1983, and has persisted despite numerous
challenges, the most formidable of which was a severe economic
crisis in 2001-02 that led to violent public protests and the
resignation of several interim presidents. Successful negotiations
with the IMF allowed Argentina to sidestep some fiscal discipline
measures normally imposed in such circumstances. Since 2003, the
government's efforts to stem the crisis have led to rapid economic
recovery.
Armenia
Armenia prides itself on being the first nation to formally
adopt Christianity (early 4th century). Despite periods of autonomy,
over the centuries Armenia came under the sway of various empires
including the Roman, Byzantine, Arab, Persian, and Ottoman. During
World War I in the western portion of Armenia, Ottoman Turkey
instituted a policy of forced resettlement coupled with other harsh
practices that resulted in an estimated 1 million Armenian deaths.
The eastern area of Armenia was ceded by the Ottomans to Russia in
1828; this portion declared its independence in 1918, but was
conquered by the Soviet Red Army in 1920. Armenian leaders remain
preoccupied by the long conflict with Muslim Azerbaijan over
Nagorno-Karabakh, a primarily Armenian-populated region, assigned to
Soviet Azerbaijan in the 1920s by Moscow. Armenia and Azerbaijan
began fighting over the area in 1988; the struggle escalated after
both countries attained independence from the Soviet Union in 1991.
By May 1994, when a cease-fire took hold, Armenian forces held not
only Nagorno-Karabakh but also a significant portion of Azerbaijan
proper. The economies of both sides have been hurt by their
inability to make substantial progress toward a peaceful resolution.
Turkey imposed an economic blockade on Armenia and closed the common
border because of the Armenian occupation of Nagorno-Karabakh and
surrounding areas.
Aruba
Discovered and claimed for Spain in 1499, Aruba was acquired
by the Dutch in 1636. The island's economy has been dominated by
three main industries. A 19th century gold rush was followed by
prosperity brought on by the opening in 1924 of an oil refinery. The
last decades of the 20th century saw a boom in the tourism industry.
Aruba seceded from the Netherlands Antilles in 1986 and became a
separate, autonomous member of the Kingdom of the Netherlands.
Movement toward full independence was halted at Aruba's request in
1990.
Ashmore and Cartier Islands
These uninhabited islands came under
Australian authority in 1931; formal administration began two years
later. Ashmore Reef supports a rich and diverse avian and marine
habitat; in 1983, it became a National Nature Reserve. Cartier
Island, a former bombing range, is now a marine reserve.
Atlantic Ocean
The Atlantic Ocean is the second largest of the
world's five oceans (after the Pacific Ocean, but larger than the
Indian Ocean, Southern Ocean, and Arctic Ocean). The Kiel Canal
(Germany), Oresund (Denmark-Sweden), Bosporus (Turkey), Strait of
Gibraltar (Morocco-Spain), and the Saint Lawrence Seaway (Canada-US)
are important strategic access waterways. The decision by the
International Hydrographic Organization in the spring of 2000 to
delimit a fifth world ocean, the Southern Ocean, removed the portion
of the Atlantic Ocean south of 60 degrees south latitude.
Australia
Aboriginal settlers arrived on the continent from
Southeast Asia about 40,000 years before the first Europeans began
exploration in the 17th century. No formal territorial claims were
made until 1770, when Capt. James COOK took possession in the name
of Great Britain. Six colonies were created in the late 18th and
19th centuries; they federated and became the Commonwealth of
Australia in 1901. The new country took advantage of its natural
resources to rapidly develop agricultural and manufacturing
industries and to make a major contribution to the British effort in
World Wars I and II. In recent decades, Australia has transformed
itself into an internationally competitive, advanced market economy.
It boasted one of the OECD's fastest growing economies during the
1990s, a performance due in large part to economic reforms adopted
in the 1980s. Long-term concerns include pollution, particularly
depletion of the ozone layer, and management and conservation of
coastal areas, especially the Great Barrier Reef.
Austria
Once the center of power for the large Austro-Hungarian
Empire, Austria was reduced to a small republic after its defeat in
World War I. Following annexation by Nazi Germany in 1938 and
subsequent occupation by the victorious Allies in 1945, Austria's
status remained unclear for a decade. A State Treaty signed in 1955
ended the occupation, recognized Austria's independence, and forbade
unification with Germany. A constitutional law that same year
declared the country's "perpetual neutrality" as a condition for
Soviet military withdrawal. Following the Soviet Union's collapse in
1991 and Austria's entry into the European Union in 1995, some
Austrians have called into question this neutrality. A prosperous,
democratic country, Austria entered the Economic and Monetary Union
in 1999.