Liechtenstein
The Principality of Liechtenstein was established
within the Holy Roman Empire in 1719; it became a sovereign state in
1806. Until the end of World War I, it was closely tied to Austria,
but the economic devastation caused by that conflict forced
Liechtenstein to enter into a customs and monetary union with
Switzerland. Since World War II (in which Liechtenstein remained
neutral), the country's low taxes have spurred outstanding economic
growth. Shortcomings in banking regulatory oversight have resulted
in concerns about the use of the financial institutions for money
laundering. Liechtenstein has, however, implemented new
anti-money-laundering legislation and recently concluded a Mutual
Legal Assistance Treaty with the US.
Lithuania
Independent between the two World Wars, Lithuania was
annexed by the USSR in 1940. On 11 March 1990, Lithuania became the
first of the Soviet republics to declare its independence, but
Moscow did not recognize this proclamation until September of 1991
(following the abortive coup in Moscow). The last Russian troops
withdrew in 1993. Lithuania subsequently restructured its economy
for integration into Western European institutions; it joined both
NATO and the EU in the spring of 2004.
Luxembourg
Founded in 963, Luxembourg became a grand duchy in 1815
and an independent state under the Netherlands. It lost more than
half of its territory to Belgium in 1839, but gained a larger
measure of autonomy. Full independence was attained in 1867. Overrun
by Germany in both World Wars, it ended its neutrality in 1948 when
it entered into the Benelux Customs Union and when it joined NATO
the following year. In 1957, Luxembourg became one of the six
founding countries of the European Economic Community (later the
European Union), and in 1999 it joined the euro currency area.
Macau
Colonized by the Portuguese in the 16th century, Macau was the
first European settlement in the Far East. Pursuant to an agreement
signed by China and Portugal on 13 April 1987, Macau became the
Macau Special Administrative Region (SAR) of China on 20 December
1999. China has promised that, under its "one country, two systems"
formula, China's socialist economic system will not be practiced in
Macau, and that Macau will enjoy a high degree of autonomy in all
matters except foreign and defense affairs for the next 50 years.
Macedonia
Macedonia gained its independence peacefully from
Yugoslavia in 1991, but Greece's objection to the new state's use of
what it considered a Hellenic name and symbols delayed international
recognition, which occurred under the provisional designation of the
"Former Yugoslav Republic of Macedonia." In 1995, Greece lifted a
20-month trade embargo and the two countries agreed to normalize
relations, although differences over Macedonia's name remain. The
undetermined status of neighboring Kosovo, implementation of the
Framework Agreement - which ended the 2001 ethnic Albanian armed
insurgency - and a weak economy continue to be challenges for
Macedonia.
Madagascar
Formerly an independent kingdom, Madagascar became a
French colony in 1896, but regained its independence in 1960. During
1992-93, free presidential and National Assembly elections were
held, ending 17 years of single-party rule. In 1997, in the second
presidential race, Didier RATSIRAKA, the leader during the 1970s and
1980s, was returned to the presidency. The 2001 presidential
election was contested between the followers of Didier RATSIRAKA and
Marc RAVALOMANANA, nearly causing secession of half of the country.
In April 2002, the High Constitutional Court announced RAVALOMANANA
the winner.
Malawi
Established in 1891, the British protectorate of Nyasaland
became the independent nation of Malawi in 1964. After three decades
of one-party rule under President Hastings Kamuzu BANDA the country
held multiparty elections in 1994, under a provisional constitution
which came into full effect the following year. Current President
Bingu wa MUTHARIKA, elected in May 2004 after a failed attempt by
the previous president to amend the constitution to permit another
term, has struggled to assert his authority against his predecessor,
who still leads their shared political party. MUTHARIKA's
anti-corruption efforts have led to several high-level arrests and
one prominent conviction. Increasing corruption, population growth,
increasing pressure on agricultural lands, and the spread of
HIV/AIDS pose major problems for the country.
Malaysia
During the late 18th and 19th centuries, Great Britain
established colonies and protectorates in the area of current
Malaysia; these were occupied by Japan from 1942 to 1945. In 1948,
the British-ruled territories on the Malay Peninsula formed the
Federation of Malaya, which became independent in 1957. Malaysia was
formed in 1963 when the former British colonies of Singapore and the
East Malaysian states of Sabah and Sarawak on the northern coast of
Borneo joined the Federation. The first several years of the
country's history were marred by Indonesian efforts to control
Malaysia, Philippine claims to Sabah, and Singapore's secession from
the Federation in 1965. During the 22-year term of Prime Minister
MAHATHIR bin Mohamad (1981-2003), Malaysia was successful in
diversifying its economy from dependence on exports of raw
materials, to expansion in manufacturing, services, and tourism.
Maldives
The Maldives was long a sultanate, first under Dutch and
then under British protection. It became a republic in 1968, three
years after independence. Since 1978, President Maumoon Abdul GAYOOM
- currently in his sixth term in office - has dominated the islands'
political scene. Following riots in the capital Male in August 2004,
the president and his government have pledged to embark upon
democratic reforms, including a more representative political system
and expanded political freedoms. Tourism and fishing are being
developed on the archipelago.
Mali
The Sudanese Republic and Senegal became independent of France
in 1960 as the Mali Federation. When Senegal withdrew after only a
few months, what formerly made up the Sudanese Republic was renamed
Mali. Rule by dictatorship was brought to a close in 1991 by a coup
that ushered in democratic government. President Alpha KONARE won
Mali's first democratic presidential election in 1992 and was
reelected in 1997. In keeping with Mali's two-term constitutional
limit, KONARE stepped down in 2002 and was succeeded by Amadou TOURE.