Monaco
The Genoese built a fortress on the site of present-day
Monaco in 1215. The current ruling Grimaldi family secured control
in the late 13th century, and a principality was established in
1338. Economic development was spurred in the late 19th century with
a railroad linkup to France and the opening of a casino. Since then,
the principality's mild climate, splendid scenery, and gambling
facilities have made Monaco world famous as a tourist and recreation
center.
Mongolia
The Mongols gained fame in the 13th century when under
Chinggis KHAN they conquered a huge Eurasian empire. After his death
the empire was divided into several powerful Mongol states, but
these broke apart in the 14th century. The Mongols eventually
retired to their original steppe homelands and later came under
Chinese rule. Mongolia won its independence in 1921 with Soviet
backing. A Communist regime was installed in 1924. The ex-Communist
Mongolian People's Revolutionary Party (MPRP) won elections in 1990
and 1992, but was defeated by the Democratic Union Coalition (DUC)
in the 1996 parliamentary election. Since then, parliamentary
elections returned the MPRP overwhelmingly to power in 2000 and
produced a coalition government in 2004.
Montenegro
The use of the name Montenegro began in the 15th century
when the Crnojevic dynasty began to rule the Serbian principality of
Zeta; over subsequent centuries Montenegro was able to maintain its
independence from the Ottoman Empire. From the 16th to 19th
centuries, Montenegro became a theocracy ruled by a series of bishop
princes; in 1852, it was transformed into a secular principality.
After World War I, Montenegro was absorbed by the Kingdom of Serbs,
Croats, and Slovenes, which became the Kingdom of Yugoslavia in
1929; at the conclusion of World War II, it became a constituent
republic of the Socialist Federal Republic of Yugoslavia. When the
latter dissolved in 1992, Montenegro federated with Serbia, first as
the Federal Republic of Yugoslavia and, after 2003, in a looser
union of Serbia and Montenegro. In May 2006, Montenegro invoked its
right under the Constitutional Charter of Serbia and Montenegro to
hold a referendum on independence from the state union. The vote for
severing ties with Serbia exceeded 55% - the threshold set by the EU
- allowing Montenegro to formally declare its independence on 3 June
2006.
Montserrat
English and Irish colonists from St. Kitts first settled
on Montserrat in 1632; the first African slaves arrived three
decades later. The British and French fought for possesion of the
island for most of the 18th century, but it finally was confirmed as
a British possession in 1783. The island's sugar plantation economy
was converted to small farm landholdings in the mid 19th century.
Much of this island was devastated and two-thirds of the population
fled abroad because of the eruption of the Soufriere Hills Volcano
that began on 18 July 1995. Montserrat has endured volcanic activity
since, with the last eruption occurring in July 2003.
Morocco
In 788, about a century after the Arab conquest of North
Africa, successive Moorish dynasties began to rule in Morocco. In
the 16th century, the Sa'adi monarchy, particularly under Ahmad
AL-MANSUR (1578-1603), repelled foreign invaders and inaugurated a
golden age. In 1860, Spain occupied northern Morocco and ushered in
a half century of trade rivalry among European powers that saw
Morocco's sovereignty steadily erode; in 1912, the French imposed a
protectorate over the country. A protracted independence struggle
with France ended successfully in 1956. The internationalized city
of Tangier and most Spanish possessions were turned over to the new
country that same year. Morocco virtually annexed Western Sahara
during the late 1970s, but final resolution on the status of the
territory remains unresolved. Gradual political reforms in the 1990s
resulted in the establishment of a bicameral legislature, which
first met in 1997. Lower house elections were last held held in
September 2002 and upper house elections were last held in September
2006.
Mozambique
Almost five centuries as a Portuguese colony came to a
close with independence in 1975. Large-scale emigration by whites,
economic dependence on South Africa, a severe drought, and a
prolonged civil war hindered the country's development. The ruling
Front for the Liberation of Mozambique (FRELIMO) party formally
abandoned Marxism in 1989, and a new constitution the following year
provided for multiparty elections and a free market economy. A
UN-negotiated peace agreement between FRELIMO and rebel Mozambique
National Resistance (RENAMO) forces ended the fighting in 1992. In
December 2004, Mozambique underwent a delicate transition as Joaquim
CHISSANO stepped down after 18 years in office. His newly elected
successor, Armando Emilio GUEBUZA, has promised to continue the
sound economic policies that have encouraged foreign investment.
Namibia
South Africa occupied the German colony of South-West Africa
during World War I and administered it as a mandate until after
World War II, when it annexed the territory. In 1966 the Marxist
South-West Africa People's Organization (SWAPO) guerrilla group
launched a war of independence for the area that was soon named
Namibia, but it was not until 1988 that South Africa agreed to end
its administration in accordance with a UN peace plan for the entire
region. Namibia won its independence in 1990 and has been governed
by SWAPO since. Hifikepunye POHAMBA was elected president in
November 2004 in a landslide victory replacing Sam NUJOMA who led
the country during its first 14 years of self rule.
Nauru
The exact origins of the Nauruans are unclear, since their
language does not resemble any other in the Pacific. The island was
annexed by Germany in 1888 and its phosphate deposits began to be
mined early in the 20th century by a German-British consortium.
Nauru was occupied by Australian forces in World War I and
subsequently became a League of Nations mandate. After the Second
World War - and a brutal occupation by Japan - Nauru became a UN
trust territory. It achieved its independence in 1968 and joined the
UN in 1999 as the world's smallest independent republic.
Navassa Island
This uninhabited island was claimed by the US in 1857
for its guano. Mining took place between 1865 and 1898. The
lighthouse, built in 1917, was shut down in 1996 and administration
of Navassa Island transferred from the Coast Guard to the Department
of the Interior. A 1998 scientific expedition to the island
described it as a unique preserve of Caribbean biodiversity; the
following year it became a National Wildlife Refuge and annual
scientific expeditions have continued.
Nepal
In 1951, the Nepalese monarch ended the century-old system of
rule by hereditary premiers and instituted a cabinet system of
government. Reforms in 1990 established a multiparty democracy
within the framework of a constitutional monarchy. A Maoist
insurgency, launched in 1996, gained traction and threatened to
bring down the regime, especially after a negotiated cease-fire
between the Maoists and government forces broke down in August 2003.
In 2001, the crown prince massacred ten members of the royal family,
including the king and queen, and then took his own life. In October
2002, the new king dismissed the prime minister and his cabinet for
"incompetence" after they dissolved the parliament and were
subsequently unable to hold elections because of the ongoing
insurgency. While stopping short of reestablishing parliament, the
king in June 2004 reinstated the most recently elected prime
minister who formed a four-party coalition government. Citing
dissatisfaction with the government's lack of progress in addressing
the Maoist insurgency and corruption, the king in February 2005
dissolved the government, declared a state of emergency, imprisoned
party leaders, and assumed power. The king's government subsequently
released party leaders and officially ended the state of emergency
in May 2005, but the monarch retained absolute power until April
2006. After nearly three weeks of mass protests organized by the
seven-party opposition and the Maoists, the king allowed parliament
to reconvene on 28 April 2006. In November 2006, the government and
Maoists signed the Comprehensive Peace Accord to end the ten-year
insurgency.