Iran
Known as Persia until 1935, Iran became an Islamic republic in
1979 after the ruling monarchy was overthrown and Shah Mohammad Reza
PAHLAVI was forced into exile. Conservative clerical forces
established a theocratic system of government with ultimate
political authority vested in a learned religious scholar referred
to commonly as the Supreme Leader who, according to the
constitution, is accountable only to the Assembly of Experts.
US-Iranian relations have been strained since a group of Iranian
students seized the US Embassy in Tehran on 4 November 1979 and held
it until 20 January 1981. During 1980-88, Iran fought a bloody,
indecisive war with Iraq that eventually expanded into the Persian
Gulf and led to clashes between US Navy and Iranian military forces
between 1987 and 1988. Iran has been designated a state sponsor of
terrorism for its activities in Lebanon and elsewhere in the world
and remains subject to US, UN, and EU economic sanctions and export
controls because of its continued involvement in terrorism and its
nuclear weapons ambitions. Following the election of reformer Hojjat
ol-Eslam Mohammad KHATAMI as president in 1997 and similarly a
reformer Majles (parliament) in 2000, a campaign to foster political
reform in response to popular dissatisfaction was initiated. The
movement floundered as conservative politicians, through the control
of unelected institutions, prevented reform measures from being
enacted and increased repressive measures. Starting with nationwide
municipal elections in 2003 and continuing through Majles elections
in 2004, conservatives reestablished control over Iran's elected
government institutions, which culminated with the August 2005
inauguration of hardliner Mahmud AHMADI-NEJAD as president. The UN
Security Council has passed a number of resolutions (1696 in July
2006, 1737 in December 2006, 1747 in March 2007, 1803 in March 2008,
and 1835 in September 2008) calling for Iran to suspend its uranium
enrichment and reprocessing activities and comply with its IAEA
obligations and responsibilities. Resolutions 1737, 1477, and 1803
subject a number of Iranian individuals and entities involved in
Iran's nuclear and ballistic missile programs to sanctions.
Additionally, several Iranian entities are subject to US sanctions
under Executive Order 13382 designations for proliferation
activities and EO 13224 designations for support of terrorism.

Iraq
Formerly part of the Ottoman Empire, Iraq was occupied by
Britain during the course of World War I; in 1920, it was declared a
League of Nations mandate under UK administration. In stages over
the next dozen years, Iraq attained its independence as a kingdom in
1932. A "republic" was proclaimed in 1958, but in actuality a series
of strongmen ruled the country until 2003. The last was SADDAM
Husayn. Territorial disputes with Iran led to an inconclusive and
costly eight-year war (1980-88). In August 1990, Iraq seized Kuwait
but was expelled by US-led, UN coalition forces during the Gulf War
of January-February 1991. Following Kuwait's liberation, the UN
Security Council (UNSC) required Iraq to scrap all weapons of mass
destruction and long-range missiles and to allow UN verification
inspections. Continued Iraqi noncompliance with UNSC resolutions
over a period of 12 years led to the US-led invasion of Iraq in
March 2003 and the ouster of the SADDAM Husayn regime. US forces
remained in Iraq under a UNSC mandate until 31 December 2008 and
under a bilateral Security Agreement thereafter, helping to provide
security and to support the freely elected government. In October
2005, Iraqis approved a constitution in a national referendum and,
pursuant to this document, elected a 275-member Council of
Representatives (CoR) in December 2005. After the election, Ibrahim
al-JAAFARI was selected as prime minister; he was replaced by Nuri
al-MALIKI in May 2006. The CoR approved most cabinet ministers in
May 2006, marking the transition to Iraq's first constitutional
government in nearly a half century. On 31 January 2009, Iraq held
elections for provincial councils in all provinces except for the
three provinces comprising the Kurdistan Regional Government and
at-Ta'mim (Kirkuk) province.

Ireland
Celtic tribes arrived on the island between 600-150 B.C.
Invasions by Norsemen that began in the late 8th century were
finally ended when King Brian BORU defeated the Danes in 1014.
English invasions began in the 12th century and set off more than
seven centuries of Anglo-Irish struggle marked by fierce rebellions
and harsh repressions. A failed 1916 Easter Monday Rebellion touched
off several years of guerrilla warfare that in 1921 resulted in
independence from the UK for 26 southern counties; six northern
(Ulster) counties remained part of the UK. In 1949, Ireland withdrew
from the British Commonwealth; it joined the European Community in
1973. Irish governments have sought the peaceful unification of
Ireland and have cooperated with Britain against terrorist groups. A
peace settlement for Northern Ireland is gradually being implemented
despite some difficulties. In 2006, the Irish and British
governments developed and began to implement the St. Andrews
Agreement, building on the Good Friday Agreement approved in 1998.

Isle of Man
Part of the Norwegian Kingdom of the Hebrides until the
13th century when it was ceded to Scotland, the isle came under the
British crown in 1765. Current concerns include reviving the almost
extinct Manx Gaelic language. Isle of Man is a British crown
dependency but is not part of the UK. However, the UK Government
remains constitutionally responsible for its defense and
international representation.

Israel
Following World War II, the British withdrew from their
mandate of Palestine, and the UN partitioned the area into Arab and
Jewish states, an arrangement rejected by the Arabs. Subsequently,
the Israelis defeated the Arabs in a series of wars without ending
the deep tensions between the two sides. The territories Israel
occupied since the 1967 war are not included in the Israel country
profile, unless otherwise noted. On 25 April 1982, Israel withdrew
from the Sinai pursuant to the 1979 Israel-Egypt Peace Treaty. In
keeping with the framework established at the Madrid Conference in
October 1991, bilateral negotiations were conducted between Israel
and Palestinian representatives and Syria to achieve a permanent
settlement. Israel and Palestinian officials signed on 13 September
1993 a Declaration of Principles (also known as the "Oslo Accords")
guiding an interim period of Palestinian self-rule. Outstanding
territorial and other disputes with Jordan were resolved in the 26
October 1994 Israel-Jordan Treaty of Peace. In addition, on 25 May
2000, Israel withdrew unilaterally from southern Lebanon, which it
had occupied since 1982. In April 2003, US President BUSH, working
in conjunction with the EU, UN, and Russia - the "Quartet" - took
the lead in laying out a roadmap to a final settlement of the
conflict by 2005, based on reciprocal steps by the two parties
leading to two states, Israel and a democratic Palestine. However,
progress toward a permanent status agreement was undermined by
Israeli-Palestinian violence between September 2003 and February
2005. An Israeli-Palestinian agreement reached at Sharm al-Sheikh in
February 2005, along with an internally-brokered Palestinian
cease-fire, significantly reduced the violence. In the summer of
2005, Israel unilaterally disengaged from the Gaza Strip, evacuating
settlers and its military while retaining control over most points
of entry into the Gaza Strip. The election of HAMAS in January 2006
to head the Palestinian Legislative Council froze relations between
Israel and the Palestinian Authority (PA). Ehud OLMERT became prime
minister in March 2006; he shelved plans to unilaterally evacuate
from most of the West Bank following an Israeli military operation
in Gaza in June-July 2006 and a 34-day conflict with Hizballah in
Lebanon in June-August 2006. OLMERT in June 2007 resumed talks with
the PA after HAMAS seized control of the Gaza Strip and PA President
Mahmoud ABBAS formed a new government without HAMAS. OLMERT in
September 2008 resigned in the wake of several corruption
allegations, but remained prime minister until the new coalition
government under former Prime Minister Binyamin NETANYAHU was
completed in late March 2009, following the February general
election.

Italy
Italy became a nation-state in 1861 when the regional states
of the peninsula, along with Sardinia and Sicily, were united under
King Victor EMMANUEL II. An era of parliamentary government came to
a close in the early 1920s when Benito MUSSOLINI established a
Fascist dictatorship. His alliance with Nazi Germany led to Italy's
defeat in World War II. A democratic republic replaced the monarchy
in 1946 and economic revival followed. Italy was a charter member of
NATO and the European Economic Community (EEC). It has been at the
forefront of European economic and political unification, joining
the Economic and Monetary Union in 1999. Persistent problems include
illegal immigration, organized crime, corruption, high unemployment,
sluggish economic growth, and the low incomes and technical
standards of southern Italy compared with the prosperous north.

Jamaica
The island - discovered by Christopher COLUMBUS in 1494 -
was settled by the Spanish early in the 16th century. The native
Taino Indians, who had inhabited Jamaica for centuries, were
gradually exterminated and replaced by African slaves. England
seized the island in 1655 and established a plantation economy based
on sugar, cocoa, and coffee. The abolition of slavery in 1834 freed
a quarter million slaves, many of whom became small farmers. Jamaica
gradually obtained increasing independence from Britain. In 1958 it
joined other British Caribbean colonies in forming the Federation of
the West Indies. Jamaica gained full independence when it withdrew
from the Federation in 1962. Deteriorating economic conditions
during the 1970s led to recurrent violence as rival gangs affiliated
with the major political parties evolved into powerful organized
crime networks involved in international drug smuggling and money
laundering. Violent crime, drug trafficking, and poverty pose
significant challenges to the government today. Nonetheless, many
rural and resort areas remain relatively safe and contribute
substantially to the economy.

Jan Mayen
This desolate, arctic, mountainous island was named after
a Dutch whaling captain who indisputably discovered it in 1614
(earlier claims are inconclusive). Visited only occasionally by seal
hunters and trappers over the following centuries, the island came
under Norwegian sovereignty in 1929. The long dormant Haakon VII
Toppen/Beerenberg volcano resumed activity in 1970; the most recent
eruption occurred in 1985. It is the northernmost active volcano on
earth.

Japan
In 1603, a Tokugawa shogunate (military dictatorship) ushered
in a long period of isolation from foreign influence in order to
secure its power. For more than two centuries this policy enabled
Japan to enjoy stability and a flowering of its indigenous culture.
Following the Treaty of Kanagawa with the US in 1854, Japan opened
its ports and began to intensively modernize and industrialize.
During the late 19th and early 20th centuries, Japan became a
regional power that was able to defeat the forces of both China and
Russia. It occupied Korea, Formosa (Taiwan), and southern Sakhalin
Island. In 1931-32 Japan occupied Manchuria, and in 1937 it launched
a full-scale invasion of China. Japan attacked US forces in 1941 -
triggering America's entry into World War II - and soon occupied
much of East and Southeast Asia. After its defeat in World War II,
Japan recovered to become an economic power and a staunch ally of
the US. While the emperor retains his throne as a symbol of national
unity, elected politicians - with heavy input from bureaucrats and
business executives - wield actual decisionmaking power. The economy
experienced a major slowdown starting in the 1990s following three
decades of unprecedented growth, but Japan still remains a major
economic power, both in Asia and globally. In January 2009, Japan
assumed a nonpermanent seat on the UN Security Council for the
2009-10 term.

Jersey
Jersey and the other Channel Islands represent the last
remnants of the medieval Dukedom of Normandy that held sway in both
France and England. These islands were the only British soil
occupied by German troops in World War II. Jersey is a British crown
dependency but is not part of the UK. However, the UK Government is
constitutionally responsible for its defense and international
representation.