Paracel Islands
The Paracel Islands are surrounded by productive
fishing grounds and by potential oil and gas reserves. In 1932,
French Indochina annexed the islands and set up a weather station on
Pattle Island; maintenance was continued by its successor, Vietnam.
China has occupied the Paracel Islands since 1974, when its troops
seized a South Vietnamese garrison occupying the western islands.
China built a military installation on Mischief Reef in 1999. The
islands are claimed by Taiwan and Vietnam.
Paraguay
Paraguay achieved its independence from Spain in 1811. In
the disastrous War of the Triple Alliance (1865-70) - between
Paraguay and Argentina, Brazil, and Uruguay - Paraguay lost
two-thirds of all adult males and much of its territory. The country
stagnated economically for the next half century. Following the
Chaco War of 1932-35 with Bolivia, Paraguay gained a large part of
the Chaco lowland region. The 35-year military dictatorship of
Alfredo STROESSNER ended in 1989, and, despite a marked increase in
political infighting in recent years, Paraguay has held relatively
free and regular presidential elections since then.
Peru
Ancient Peru was the seat of several prominent Andean
civilizations, most notably that of the Incas whose empire was
captured by the Spanish conquistadors in 1533. Peruvian independence
was declared in 1821, and remaining Spanish forces defeated in 1824.
After a dozen years of military rule, Peru returned to democratic
leadership in 1980, but experienced economic problems and the growth
of a violent insurgency. President Alberto FUJIMORI's election in
1990 ushered in a decade that saw a dramatic turnaround in the
economy and significant progress in curtailing guerrilla activity.
Nevertheless, the president's increasing reliance on authoritarian
measures and an economic slump in the late 1990s generated mounting
dissatisfaction with his regime, which led to his ouster in 2000. A
caretaker government oversaw new elections in the spring of 2001,
which ushered in Alejandro TOLEDO Manrique as the new head of
government - Peru's first democratically elected president of Native
American ethnicity. The presidential election of 2006 saw the return
of Alan GARCIA Perez who, after a disappointing presidential term
from 1985 to 1990, has overseen a robust macroeconomic performance.
Philippines
The Philippine Islands became a Spanish colony during
the 16th century; they were ceded to the US in 1898 following the
Spanish-American War. In 1935 the Philippines became a
self-governing commonwealth. Manuel QUEZON was elected president and
was tasked with preparing the country for independence after a
10-year transition. In 1942 the islands fell under Japanese
occupation during World War II, and US forces and Filipinos fought
together during 1944-45 to regain control. On 4 July 1946 the
Republic of the Philippines attained its independence. The 20-year
rule of Ferdinand MARCOS ended in 1986, when a "people power"
movement in Manila ("EDSA 1") forced him into exile and installed
Corazon AQUINO as president. Her presidency was hampered by several
coup attempts, which prevented a return to full political stability
and economic development. Fidel RAMOS was elected president in 1992
and his administration was marked by greater stability and progress
on economic reforms. In 1992, the US closed its last military bases
on the islands. Joseph ESTRADA was elected president in 1998, but
was succeeded by his vice-president, Gloria MACAPAGAL-ARROYO, in
January 2001 after ESTRADA's stormy impeachment trial on corruption
charges broke down and another "people power" movement ("EDSA 2")
demanded his resignation. MACAPAGAL-ARROYO was elected to a six-year
term as president in May 2004. The Philippine Government faces
threats from three terrorist groups on the US Government's Foreign
Terrorist Organization list, but in 2006 and 2007 scored some major
successes in capturing or killing key wanted terrorists. Decades of
Muslim insurgency in the southern Philippines have led to a peace
accord with one group and on-again/off-again peace talks with
another.
Pitcairn Islands
Pitcairn Island was discovered in 1767 by the
British and settled in 1790 by the Bounty mutineers and their
Tahitian companions. Pitcairn was the first Pacific island to become
a British colony (in 1838) and today remains the last vestige of
that empire in the South Pacific. Outmigration, primarily to New
Zealand, has thinned the population from a peak of 233 in 1937 to
less than 50 today.
Poland
Poland is an ancient nation that was conceived near the
middle of the 10th century. Its golden age occurred in the 16th
century. During the following century, the strengthening of the
gentry and internal disorders weakened the nation. In a series of
agreements between 1772 and 1795, Russia, Prussia, and Austria
partitioned Poland amongst themselves. Poland regained its
independence in 1918 only to be overrun by Germany and the Soviet
Union in World War II. It became a Soviet satellite state following
the war, but its government was comparatively tolerant and
progressive. Labor turmoil in 1980 led to the formation of the
independent trade union "Solidarity" that over time became a
political force and by 1990 had swept parliamentary elections and
the presidency. A "shock therapy" program during the early 1990s
enabled the country to transform its economy into one of the most
robust in Central Europe, but Poland still faces the lingering
challenges of high unemployment, underdeveloped and dilapidated
infrastructure, and a poor rural underclass. Solidarity suffered a
major defeat in the 2001 parliamentary elections when it failed to
elect a single deputy to the lower house of Parliament, and the new
leaders of the Solidarity Trade Union subsequently pledged to reduce
the Trade Union's political role. Poland joined NATO in 1999 and the
European Union in 2004. With its transformation to a democratic,
market-oriented country largely completed, Poland is an increasingly
active member of Euro-Atlantic organizations.
Portugal
Following its heyday as a global maritime power during the
15th and 16th centuries, Portugal lost much of its wealth and status
with the destruction of Lisbon in a 1755 earthquake, occupation
during the Napoleonic Wars, and the independence of its wealthiest
colony of Brazil in 1822. A 1910 revolution deposed the monarchy;
for most of the next six decades, repressive governments ran the
country. In 1974, a left-wing military coup installed broad
democratic reforms. The following year, Portugal granted
independence to all of its African colonies. Portugal is a founding
member of NATO and entered the EC (now the EU) in 1986.
Puerto Rico
Populated for centuries by aboriginal peoples, the
island was claimed by the Spanish Crown in 1493 following COLUMBUS'
second voyage to the Americas. In 1898, after 400 years of colonial
rule that saw the indigenous population nearly exterminated and
African slave labor introduced, Puerto Rico was ceded to the US as a
result of the Spanish-American War. Puerto Ricans were granted US
citizenship in 1917. Popularly-elected governors have served since
1948. In 1952, a constitution was enacted providing for internal
self government. In plebiscites held in 1967, 1993, and 1998, voters
chose not to alter the existing political status.
Qatar
Ruled by the al-Thani family since the mid-1800s, Qatar
transformed itself from a poor British protectorate noted mainly for
pearling into an independent state with significant oil and natural
gas revenues. During the late 1980s and early 1990s, the Qatari
economy was crippled by a continuous siphoning off of petroleum
revenues by the Amir, who had ruled the country since 1972. His son,
the current Amir HAMAD bin Khalifa al-Thani, overthrew him in a
bloodless coup in 1995. In 2001, Qatar resolved its longstanding
border disputes with both Bahrain and Saudi Arabia. As of 2007, oil
and natural gas revenues had enabled Qatar to attain the
second-highest per capita income in the world.
Romania
The principalities of Wallachia and Moldavia - for centuries
under the suzerainty of the Turkish Ottoman Empire - secured their
autonomy in 1856; they united in 1859 and a few years later adopted
the new name of Romania. The country gained recognition of its
independence in 1878. It joined the Allied Powers in World War I and
acquired new territories - most notably Transylvania - following the
conflict. In 1940, Romania allied with the Axis powers and
participated in the 1941 German invasion of the USSR. Three years
later, overrun by the Soviets, Romania signed an armistice. The
post-war Soviet occupation led to the formation of a Communist
"people's republic" in 1947 and the abdication of the king. The
decades-long rule of dictator Nicolae CEAUSESCU, who took power in
1965, and his Securitate police state became increasingly oppressive
and draconian through the 1980s. CEAUSESCU was overthrown and
executed in late 1989. Former Communists dominated the government
until 1996 when they were swept from power. Romania joined NATO in
2004 and the EU in 2007.