Ecuador
What is now Ecuador formed part of the northern Inca Empire
until the Spanish conquest in 1533. Quito became a seat of Spanish
colonial government in 1563 and part of the Viceroyalty of New
Granada in 1717. The territories of the Viceroyalty - New Granada
(Colombia), Venezuela, and Quito - gained their independence between
1819 and 1822 and formed a federation known as Gran Colombia. When
Quito withdrew in 1830, the traditional name was changed in favor of
the "Republic of the Equator." Between 1904 and 1942, Ecuador lost
territories in a series of conflicts with its neighbors. A border
war with Peru that flared in 1995 was resolved in 1999. Although
Ecuador marked 30 years of civilian governance in 2004, the period
has been marred by political instability. Protests in Quito
contributed to the mid-term ouster of three of Ecuador's last four
democratically elected Presidents. In September 2008, voters
approved a new constitution; Ecuador's twentieth since gaining
independence. General elections, under the new constitutional
framework, were held in April 2009, and voters re-elected President
Rafael CORREA.
Egypt
The regularity and richness of the annual Nile River flood,
coupled with semi-isolation provided by deserts to the east and
west, allowed for the development of one of the world's great
civilizations. A unified kingdom arose circa 3200 B.C., and a series
of dynasties ruled in Egypt for the next three millennia. The last
native dynasty fell to the Persians in 341 B.C., who in turn were
replaced by the Greeks, Romans, and Byzantines. It was the Arabs who
introduced Islam and the Arabic language in the 7th century and who
ruled for the next six centuries. A local military caste, the
Mamluks took control about 1250 and continued to govern after the
conquest of Egypt by the Ottoman Turks in 1517. Following the
completion of the Suez Canal in 1869, Egypt became an important
world transportation hub, but also fell heavily into debt.
Ostensibly to protect its investments, Britain seized control of
Egypt's government in 1882, but nominal allegiance to the Ottoman
Empire continued until 1914. Partially independent from the UK in
1922, Egypt acquired full sovereignty with the overthrow of the
British-backed monarchy in 1952. The completion of the Aswan High
Dam in 1971 and the resultant Lake Nasser have altered the
time-honored place of the Nile River in the agriculture and ecology
of Egypt. A rapidly growing population (the largest in the Arab
world), limited arable land, and dependence on the Nile all continue
to overtax resources and stress society. The government has
struggled to meet the demands of Egypt's growing population through
economic reform and massive investment in communications and
physical infrastructure.
El Salvador
El Salvador achieved independence from Spain in 1821 and
from the Central American Federation in 1839. A 12-year civil war,
which cost about 75,000 lives, was brought to a close in 1992 when
the government and leftist rebels signed a treaty that provided for
military and political reforms.
Equatorial Guinea
Equatorial Guinea gained independence in 1968
after 190 years of Spanish rule. This tiny country, composed of a
mainland portion plus five inhabited islands, is one of the smallest
on the African continent. President Teodoro OBIANG NGUEMA MBASOGO
has ruled the country since 1979 when he seized power in a coup.
Although nominally a constitutional democracy since 1991, the 1996,
2002, and 2009 presidential elections - as well as the 1999 and 2004
legislative elections - were widely seen as flawed. The president
exerts almost total control over the political system and has
discouraged political opposition. Equatorial Guinea has experienced
rapid economic growth due to the discovery of large offshore oil
reserves, and in the last decade has become Sub-Saharan Africa's
third largest oil exporter. Despite the country's economic windfall
from oil production resulting in a massive increase in government
revenue in recent years, there have been few improvements in the
population's living standards.
Eritrea
The UN awarded Eritrea to Ethiopia in 1952 as part of a
federation. Ethiopia's annexation of Eritrea as a province 10 years
later sparked a 30-year struggle for independence that ended in 1991
with Eritrean rebels defeating governmental forces; independence was
overwhelmingly approved in a 1993 referendum. A two-and-a-half-year
border war with Ethiopia that erupted in 1998 ended under UN
auspices in December 2000. Eritrea hosted a UN peacekeeping
operation that monitored a 25 km-wide Temporary Security Zone (TSZ)
on the border with Ethiopia. Eritrea's denial of fuel to the mission
caused the UN to withdraw the mission and terminate its mandate 31
July 2008. An international commission, organized to resolve the
border dispute, posted its findings in 2002. However, both parties
have been unable to reach agreement on implementing the decision. On
30 November 2007, the Eritrea-Ethiopia Boundary Commission remotely
demarcated the border by coordinates and dissolved itself, leaving
Ethiopia still occupying several tracts of disputed territory,
including the town of Badme. Eritrea accepted the EEBC's "virtual
demarcation" decision and called on Ethiopia to remove its troops
from the TSZ that it states is Eritrean territory. Ethiopia has not
accepted the virtual demarcation decision. In 2009 the UN imposed
sanctions on Eritrea after accusing it of backing anti-Ethiopian
Islamist insurgents in Somalia.
Estonia
After centuries of Danish, Swedish, German, and Russian
rule, Estonia attained independence in 1918. Forcibly incorporated
into the USSR in 1940 - an action never recognized by the US - it
regained its freedom in 1991 with the collapse of the Soviet Union.
Since the last Russian troops left in 1994, Estonia has been free to
promote economic and political ties with Western Europe. It joined
both NATO and the EU in the spring of 2004.
Ethiopia
Unique among African countries, the ancient Ethiopian
monarchy maintained its freedom from colonial rule with the
exception of a short-lived Italian occupation from 1936-41. In 1974,
a military junta, the Derg, deposed Emperor Haile SELASSIE (who had
ruled since 1930) and established a socialist state. Torn by bloody
coups, uprisings, wide-scale drought, and massive refugee problems,
the regime was finally toppled in 1991 by a coalition of rebel
forces, the Ethiopian People's Revolutionary Democratic Front
(EPRDF). A constitution was adopted in 1994, and Ethiopia's first
multiparty elections were held in 1995. A border war with Eritrea
late in the 1990s ended with a peace treaty in December 2000. In
November 2007, the Eritrea-Ethiopia Border Commission remotely
demarcated the border by geographical coordinates, but final
demarcation of the boundary on the ground is currently on hold
because of Ethiopian objections to an international commission's
finding requiring it to surrender territory considered sensitive to
Ethiopia.
European Union Following the two devastating World Wars in the first half of the 20th century, a number of European leaders in the late 1940s became convinced that the only way to establish a lasting peace was to unite the two chief belligerent nations - France and Germany - both economically and politically. In 1950, the French Foreign Minister Robert SCHUMAN proposed an eventual union of all Europe, the first step of which would be the integration of the coal and steel industries of Western Europe. The following year the European Coal and Steel Community (ECSC) was set up when six members, Belgium, France, West Germany, Italy, Luxembourg, and the Netherlands, signed the Treaty of Paris. The ECSC was so successful that within a few years the decision was made to integrate other parts of the countries' economies. In 1957, the Treaties of Rome created the European Economic Community (EEC) and the European Atomic Energy Community (Euratom), and the six member states undertook to eliminate trade barriers among themselves by forming a common market. In 1967, the institutions of all three communities were formally merged into the European Community (EC), creating a single Commission, a single Council of Ministers, and the European Parliament. Members of the European Parliament were initially selected by national parliaments, but in 1979 the first direct elections were undertaken and they have been held every five years since. In 1973, the first enlargement of the EC took place with the addition of Denmark, Ireland, and the United Kingdom. The 1980s saw further membership expansion with Greece joining in 1981 and Spain and Portugal in 1986. The 1992 Treaty of Maastricht laid the basis for further forms of cooperation in foreign and defense policy, in judicial and internal affairs, and in the creation of an economic and monetary union - including a common currency. This further integration created the European Union (EU). In 1995, Austria, Finland, and Sweden joined the EU, raising the membership total to 15. A new currency, the euro, was launched in world money markets on 1 January 1999; it became the unit of exchange for all of the EU states except the United Kingdom, Sweden, and Denmark. In 2002, citizens of the 12 euro-area countries (the European Monetary Union or EMU) began using the euro banknotes and coins. Ten new countries joined the EU in 2004 - Cyprus, the Czech Republic, Estonia, Hungary, Latvia, Lithuania, Malta, Poland, Slovakia, and Slovenia - and in 2007 Bulgaria and Romania joined, bringing the current membership to 27. In order to ensure that the EU can continue to function efficiently with an expanded membership, the Treaty of Nice (in force as of 1 February 2003) set forth rules streamlining the size and procedures of EU institutions. An effort to establish an EU constitution, begun in October 2004, failed to attain unanimous ratification. A new effort, undertaken in June 2007, created an Intergovernmental Conference to formulate a political agreement - initially known as the Reform Treaty but subsequently referred to as the Treaty of Lisbon - which would serve as a constitution. Unlike the constitution, however, the Treaty of Lisbon sought to amend existing treaties rather than replace them. In October 2009, an Irish referendum approved the Treaty (overturning a previous rejection) and cleared the way for an ultimate unanimous endorsement - the Czech Republic signed on soon after. Treaty implementation began on 1 December 2009. In 2010, the prospect of a Greek default on its euro-denominated debt created severe strains within the EMU and raised the question of whether a member country might be removed.
Falkland Islands (Islas Malvinas)
Although first sighted by an
English navigator in 1592, the first landing (English) did not occur
until almost a century later in 1690, and the first settlement
(French) was not established until 1764. The colony was turned over
to Spain two years later and the islands have since been the subject
of a territorial dispute, first between Britain and Spain, then
between Britain and Argentina. The UK asserted its claim to the
islands by establishing a naval garrison there in 1833. Argentina
invaded the islands on 2 April 1982. The British responded with an
expeditionary force that landed seven weeks later and after fierce
fighting forced an Argentine surrender on 14 June 1982.
Faroe Islands
The population of the Faroe Islands is largely
descended from Viking settlers who arrived in the 9th century. The
islands have been connected politically to Denmark since the 14th
century. A high degree of self government was granted the Faroese in
1948, who have autonomy over most internal affairs while Denmark is
responsible for justice, defense, and foreign affairs. The Faroe
Islands are not part of the European Union.