| Maximum temperature °C | Organism | Time of exposure |
|---|---|---|
| 140 | Bacterial spores | 5-hr immersion |
| 170-200 | Desiccated rotifers | 5 min |
| 151 | Desiccated rotifers | 35 min |
| 150 | Clostridium tetani | 180 min |
| 170 | Aerobic bacteria, molds. actinomycetes | 5 days at 6×10-9mm Hg |
| 127 (dry) | Bacteria (in activated charcoal) | 60 min |
| 110 (wet) | Bacillus subtilis var. niger | 400 min |
| 120 | Bacillus subtilis var. niger | 400 min |
| 141 | Bacillus subtilis var. niger | 70 min |
| 160 | Bacillus subtilis var. niger | 15 min |
| 180 | Bacillus subtilis var. niger | 2 min |
| 188 | Bacillus subtilis var. niger | 1 min |
| 120 (wet) | Bacillus stearothermophilus | 25 min |
| 120 (dry) | Bacillus stearothermophilus | 100 min |
| 141 | Bacillus stearothermophilus | 12 min |
| 160 | Bacillus stearothermophilus | 2 min |
| 166 | Bacillus stearothermophilus | 1 min |
Chemical factor | Minimum | Organism |
|---|---|---|
O2 | 0% | HeLa cells, Cephalobus,anaerobic bacteria |
O3(ozone) | 0% | |
H2 | 0% | |
H2O | Aw 0.48 | Pleurococcus vulgaris |
Aw 0.5 | Xenopsylla cheopis(prepupae) | |
H2O2 | 0% | |
He | 0% | |
CO | 0% | |
CO2 | 0% | |
CH4 | 0% | |
CH2O | 0% | |
CH3OH | 0% | |
N2 | 0% | |
NO | 0% | |
NO2 | 0% | |
N2O | 0% | |
Ar | 0% | |
NaCl, Na2SO4,NaHCO3 | ||
H2S | 0% | |
H2SO4 | 0% | |
Cu++ | ||
Zn++ | ||
pH | 0 | Acontium velatum Thiobacillusthioodixans |
Eh | -450 mVat pH 9.5 | Sulfate-reducingbacteria |
Chemical factor | Maximum | Pressure, atm | Time, days | Organism | Activity |
|---|---|---|---|---|---|
O2 | 100% | 1 | Plants, animals | Growth | |
O3(ozone) | 100 ppm | 5 | Armillariamellea | Growth | |
500 ppm | 5 | Light emission | |||
H2 | 100% | Various plants | Germination | ||
H2O | Aw 1.0 | 1 | Various aquaticorganisms | Growth | |
H2O2 | 0.34% | Rye | Germinationenhanced | ||
He | 100% | Wheat, rye, rice | Germination | ||
CO | 100% | Rye | Germination | ||
80% | 1.1 | 4 | Hydrogenomonas | Growth | |
CO2 | 100% | 1.1 | 4 | Rye | Growth andgermination |
CH4 | 100% | 1.1 | 4 | Rye | Germination |
CH2O | 50% | Rye | Germination | ||
CH3OH | 50% | Rye | Germination | ||
N2 | 100% | .1 | 10 | Various plants | Germination androot growth |
NO | 18% | .018 | 10 | Sorghum, rice | Germination androot growth |
NO2 | 18% | .018 | 10 | Rye, rice | Germination androot growth |
N2O | 100% | 1.2 | 4 | Rye | Germination |
96.5% | 1.7 | Rye | Germination | ||
Tenebrio molitor | Survival | ||||
Ar | 100% | 1.2 | 2 | Rye | Germination |
NaCl, Na2SO4,NaHCO3 | 67% | Photosyntheticbacteria | Growth | ||
H2S | 0.96g/liter | Desulfovibriodesulfuricans | Growth | ||
H2SO4 | 7% | Acontium velatum | Growth | ||
Thiobacilli | Growth, reproduction | ||||
Cu++ | 12g/liter | Thiobacillusferrooxidans | Growth | ||
Zn++ | 17g/liter | Thiobacillusferrooxidans | Growth | ||
pH | 13 | Plectonemanostocorum | Growth | ||
Nitrobacter | Growth | ||||
Nitrosomonas | Growth | ||||
Eh | 850 mV at pH 3 | Iron bacteria | Growth |
[chapter 4]
Behavioral Biology
EFFECTS OF THE SPACE ENVIRONMENT ON BEHAVIOR
NASA was established in 1958, shortly after the Russian launching of the second Earth satellite Sputnik II, the first vehicle to carry life into orbit around the Earth. This accomplishment was preceded by the pioneering work of Henry et al. ([ref.77]), in which animals were exposed briefly to low-gravity states in Aerobee rockets. A motion-picture camera photographed the behavior of two white mice in rotating drums during this series of flights, which marked the first time that simple psychological tests were made on animals in the weightless condition. While this behavioral experiment was relatively simple, it provided the basic concepts for recent studies which involved rotation of animals during the weightless state. Subsequent flights such as Project MIA (Mouse-in-Able) reflected a preoccupation with physiologic measures (refs. [ref.78] and [ref.79]), although the flights of Baker and Able included preflight and postflight performance studies ([ref.80]). Able's behavior was recorded in detail on in-flight film, but none of the behavior was programed or under experimental control.
The first flights in which behavior or performance was explicitly programed were those of Sam and Miss Sam in flights of the Little Joe rocket with the Mercury capsule, launched from Wallops Island in 1959 and 1960 ([ref.81]). The first major space achievement in the behavioral sciences was the successful in-flight measurement of the behavior of the chimpanzee Ham in early 1961, in which the pretrained animal performed throughout the flight. The second achievement along these lines was in 1962 when the chimpanzee Enos made several orbits around Earth and performed continuously on a complex behavioral task. The tasks which the animals performed during these flights have been described in detail by Belleville et al. ([ref.82]), and the results of the in-flight performance have been presented by Henry and Mosely ([ref.83]). These early flights provided much of the technological framework on which current biological experiments on organisms during flights of extended duration are based. Due largely to the efforts of Grunzke (refs. [ref.84] and [ref.85]), the apparatus needed to sustain animals during space flight, such as zero-g watering and feeding devices, are now commonplace ([ref.86]). Advanced systems of programing stimulus presentations and recording responses, developed for Project Mercury, may now be seen in many basic research laboratories throughout the country.
Several other noteworthy advances have been made as an outgrowth of the Mercury animal flights. Immediately before the orbital flight MA-5, in which the chimpanzee Enos was employed, it was unexpectedly found that this 5-year-old animal was hypertensive. Subsequent centrifuge studies showed that its vascular responses exceeded those of a control group. Consideration of the animal's preflight experience led to speculation concerning the origin of this hypertension. An explanation of the high-blood-pressure responses detected in Enos has been pursued by Meehan et al. ([ref.87]). Persistent hypertension has been produced in other laboratory chimpanzees restrained in the same manner as those participating in space flight and exposed to demanding performance tasks, a demonstration which has important implications for prolonged manned space flight and for cardiovascular medicine in general.
Studies more directly concerned with behavior and performance have been extended from those of Project Mercury. These extensions have been in the following directions: (1) the establishment and maintenance of complex behavioral repertoires under conditions of full environmental control, (2) the refinement of behavioral techniques for assessing sensory and motor processes, and (3) the maintenance of sustained performance under conditions of long-term isolation and confinement and preliminary extension of such experimental analysis to man.