The relative smoothness of Io’s surface and its volcanic activity suggest that it has the youngest surface of Jupiter’s moons. Its surface is composed of large amounts of sulfur and sulfur dioxide frost, which account for the primarily yellow-orange surface color. The volcanoes seem to eject a sufficient amount of sulfur dioxide to form a doughnut-shaped ring (torus) of ionized sulfur and oxygen atoms around Jupiter near Io’s orbit. The Jovian magnetic field lines that go through the torus allow particles to precipitate into the polar regions of Jupiter, resulting in intense ultraviolet and visible auroras.
Europa
Europa, the brightest of Jupiter’s Galilean satellites, may have a surface of thin ice crust overlying water or softer ice, with large-scale fracture and ridge systems appearing in the crust. Europa has a density about three times that of water, suggesting it is a mixture of silicate rock and some water. Very few impact craters are visible on the surface, implying a continual resurfacing process, perhaps by the production of fresh ice or snow along cracks and cold glacier-like flows.
Ganymede
Ganymede, largest of Jupiter’s 13 satellites, has bright “young” ray craters; light, linear stripes resembling the outer rings of a very large, ancient impact basin; grooved terrain with many faults; and regions of dark, heavily cratered terrain. Among the Galilean satellites, Ganymede probably has the greatest variety of geologic processes recorded on its surface and may be the best example for studying the evolution of Jupiter’s inner satellites. Imbedded within Jupiter’s magnetosphere, Ganymede is subjected to the influences of the corotating charged-particle plasma and an interaction may exist with this plasma. No atmosphere has been detected.
Callisto
The icy, dirt-laden surface of Callisto appears to be very ancient and heavily cratered. The large concentric rings indicate the remains of several enormous impact basins, created by huge meteors crashing into the surface, and since erased by the flow of the crust. Callisto’s density (less than twice that of water) is very close to that of Ganymede, yet there is little or no evidence of the crustal motion and internal activity that is visible on Ganymede.
The Magnetosphere
Perhaps the largest structure in the solar system is the magnetosphere of Jupiter. This is the region of space which is filled with Jupiter’s magnetic field and is bounded by the interaction of that magnetic field with the solar wind, which is the Sun’s outward flow of charged particles. The plasma of electrically charged particles that exists in the magnetosphere is flattened into a large disk more than 4.8 million kilometers (3 million miles) in diameter, is coupled to the magnetic field, and rotates around Jupiter. The Galilean satellites are located in the inner regions of the magnetosphere where they are subjected to intense radiation bombardment. It appears that Io is a source of the sulfur and oxygen ions which fill the magnetosphere. Another magnetospheric interaction is the electrical connection between Io and Jupiter along the magnetic field lines that leave Jupiter and intersect Io. This magnetic flux tube was examined by Voyager 1 and a flow of about five million amperes of current was measured, which was considerably more than anticipated. Voyager also discovered a new low-frequency radio emission coming from Jupiter, which is possibly associated with the Io torus.