One of the greatest epidemics of influenza began in 1836 and extended until 1837, and was called at this time epidemic catarrh. It began in England in January, spread to France, and during all the time that it was in Paris there were continual penetrating rains with cold and humidity. At Montpelier on February 20, 1837, the thermometer passed from 12 to 15 degrees above to 2 and 3 degrees below zero, and it was then that La Grippe appeared suddenly. In reply to the circular letter sent out by the Council of the Provincial Medical Association of England, comprising 18 questions, the following opinions prevailed. The disease was greatest from September to February; the great prevalence of the epidemic in all parts of the kingdom was recognized—attacks were irrespective of age, sex or temperament; it was milder in children, and the aged suffered most from it. Further, the disease was extensive in all neighborhoods; the mortality was 1 in 50, old age predisposed to fatal termination, and the duration of the disease occupied two periods, one terminating in 4 or 5 days and one in 5 to 14 days. Also relapses were frequent; those exposed to employment in the open air were not more liable to the disease than others; there was no proof of the disease being communicated from one person to another, and influenza aggravated an existent pneumonia or pulmonary phthisis. And finally previous attacks of influenza offered no protection; the symptoms were uniform; the most common of unusual symptoms were those of meningitis, inflammation of the lungs and syncope, and aside from ordinary care and treatment, general venesection was not endorsed. Evidence of fine weather and good telluric conditions were at this time also appended. The same symptoms and complications, particularly those of the lungs, occurred irrespective of seasons, civilization or place. It was believed and stated that the plague described in Homer was probably influenza. For the first time there is noticed here a point well worth consideration—the association of other epidemics with influenza, either anticipating, following or superseding. That some such association may follow the present pandemic is not to be entirely ignored. For example, cholera is already reported as prevailing abroad, following an earlier influenza outbreak. During the period, as if anticipating bacteriology, one writer explained the epidemic in an article called “The Dust of Regular Winds,” and Groves (1850) wrote on “Epidemics Examined, or Living Germs as a Source of Disease.”

In 1846 and 1847 a slight epidemic occurred in London, Paris, Nancy and Geneva. In France during the last week of 1857, and extending into January and February, 1858, there was a mild epidemic. During this period there alternated frequent frosts with soft weather, misty and humid. Among the numerous small epidemics between 1837 and 1889, one occurred on the continent of Europe in 1860, but little of value or interest was noted. In Paris in March, after great and sharp variations in temperature, a series of epidemics extended from 1870 to 1875. These were unimportant. Atmospheric modifications occupied first rank in the minds of some as a cause for the outbreaks. Rapid changes from hot to cold or from cold to hot were given weight. Other undetermined modifications of conditions were probably important.

In a recent article published by Loy McAfee (J. A. M. A., 1917, 72, 445) he discussed the confusion which existed between the diagnosis of cerebro-spinal meningitis and epidemic influenza in 1863. These were believed the same by some—that is, the same disease of varying degree. There was a great diversity of opinion among clinicians at this time, and the American Medical Association appointed a committee to make an investigation. McAfee quotes from the Medical and Surgical History of the War of the Rebellion that in 1861 and 1862 an epidemic existed among the troops called epidemic catarrh, which was afterward changed to read acute bronchitis. In September, 1861, there existed an epidemic of influenza in one of the regiments which lasted more than two weeks, and in another camp there was a similar epidemic at the same time. It is stated that there were in all 168,715 cases among the white troops, with a mortality of 650, and 22,648 among the negro troops, with a mortality of 255, making about 4 per thousand, and over 11 per thousand, respectively.

The next great epidemic, and the last until the present, occurred in the years 1889 and 1892, and was pandemic in its nature. The death rate during this time was lower in the cities than in the country. This was probably due to the fact that the greatest mortality was among children and old people, and as old people were generally left in the country, this explains the observation. The highest number of deaths was among males, believed to be due to the exposure and fatigue of work. Forty per cent. of the world’s population was said to have been attacked during this period. The yearly or seasonal repetition, as shown in this pandemic, had occurred in other epidemics. In the great pandemic of 1889 and 1890, five decades after the last important epidemic, it was stated that the medical profession found itself confronted by a new disease of which it had knowledge through medical history, so also in our time few physicians recognized at first the reappearance of influenza. This 1889 epidemic is extensively reported in the literature, and has been elaborately worked out by many observers. One important feature has been emphasized by Leichtenstern, which, although recognized by the profession after the last epidemic had been fully reported and recorded, is not appreciated by the profession during the present epidemic—namely, that while shortly after the last epidemic there were smaller relightings of the infection throughout various parts of the country, those diseases which we erroneously call grippe or influenza, occurring commonly in the spring and fall, are in no way connected with the disease with which we are dealing, and which occurs at rather long intervals. Any speculation in regard to these periods, which history has shown to be fairly wide apart, has very little basis. This pandemic, like many of former days, is believed to have originated in Asia, and from there to have spread over Europe and hence over the world. The disease spread rapidly over countries, affected probably about 40 per cent. of the world’s population, disappeared rapidly after several weeks, was thought to have had nothing to do with weather conditions, had a great morbidity but small mortality, and affected all ages and occupations. There is no doubt, as stated by some, that the development of traffic and travel was a large factor in the rapid and extensive spread of influenza during this pandemic. The course which the disease followed, springing from its supposed beginning in Asia, has been fully and amply described by writers after that period, but the great rapidity of its dissemination over all countries is the most remarkable feature in the epidemiology of any disease. This, during 1889, made many prominent physicians disregard the opinion that influenza spread by contagion and accept again the opinion expressed by observers of epidemics in former ages, that miasma as a pathogenic agent was responsible for its distribution; but anyone who reads closely the history of this epidemic, and in the light of modern medical science, must feel that the rapidity of distribution was nowhere greater than the most speedy means of transportation. This very necessary close connection was demonstrated also in regard to the mode of spread of the disease; the large cities and the commercial centers were affected earlier, smaller and country districts followed later, railroad towns were more frequently attacked than isolated villages, and even from jails, prisons and workhouses, where quarantine was immediately attempted, as well as from remote villages where the disease had been brought, there could be traced a zone of infection spreading into the country. One interesting point was raised at this time—namely, that in some places it seemed to spread by leaps and bounds, and at other places radiating as stated above.

The old controversy of whether influenza is distributed in a radiating manner or in so-called leaps and bounds is believed to be settled by consensus of opinion that it occurs in both ways. An opinion expressed by the study at this time as to whether influenza spreads more rapidly than any other infectious disease is found in the statement that the contagion is markedly virulent, the micro-organisms are easily conveyed from their original seat in the mucous membrane by coughing, sneezing and expectoration, the great number of persons who, though slightly affected, carried on their ordinary way of life without hindrance, the probable longevity of the organisms in convalescents, the brief period of incubation of two or three days, the susceptibility of all people of every age and vocation, and the possibility of carrying the contagion by merchandise and even through short distances in the air, are all suggestive reasons for this. No one at present accepts the so-called miasmatic nature of the contagion. Proofs are ample to show that one case must be present in a locality or even family, although it may be frequently overlooked, from which the epidemic spreads. During this period of 1889 and 1890 the duration of the actual epidemic period in different localities in Europe was from four to six weeks. This was subsequently shown to be consistent with the recorded reports from the various cities in the United States. Following this pandemic in the first part of the year in 1891 there were numerous epidemic outbreaks in various parts of America, including New Orleans, Chicago, Boston, and simultaneously in England. Strange to say, at this time neither Germany nor France had such epidemics, although both were exposed by travelers, particularly from England and America. The question was raised at that time whether the Germans, French or other continental nations were more immune than Americans and English. In the fall of 1891 and the entire winter of 1892 the disease was extensively prevalent both in Europe and Northern America. In these later epidemics there was no definite direction of spread. They probably would come more clearly under the so-called radiation from numerous rural districts. In almost every case at the point of its origin in these countries the epidemic developed and spread slowly, lasting months and with very varying morbidity and mortality. They had none of the explosive characteristics of the pandemic. The general diminished morbidity of the later epidemic, the diminished geographic distribution of the disease and the scarcely recognizable character of its contagion, its slow development and extension over several months, the continuous diminution in frequency and in intensity since its onset in 1889, have been explained by presumptive successive lessening of susceptibility of the population, possibly due to acquired immunization. Observers at that time, as well as ourselves, could question this last statement.

There was observed one noteworthy thing about seasons. While the great pandemic of 1889 and 1890 had no definite connection with seasons, the epidemic types which followed in 1891 and 1892 seemed to show a lighting up in either spring or fall, remaining dormant in the summer months. It has also been shown by the history of former epidemics that almost all the pandemics started from Russia in the fall, winter and spring months. Such was the case in 10 of the great pandemics of 1729 to 1889. This, no doubt, was the reason so many of the former historical writers were impressed by seasons and meteorological conditions. The statement made by observers during the epidemic that influenza presented two phases, one pandemic and the other endemic, and that each follows different epidemiological rules, seems possible. The question raised during the last epidemic of the spread of the disease in families, the disease occurring at high altitudes and even at sea, we know does not interfere with the recognition of its spread by direct contagion. Definite examples of families or villages being infected by a returned member of such family or citizen from abroad are reported frequently, and even the appearance of the disease in isolated places has often been traced and verified from a definite source, to say nothing of the question of carriers and those supposed to be suffering from other diseases.

Striking examples are shown also in this epidemic that many institutions, frequently those isolated from the world, were markedly exempt until, through servants or outside visitors, the disease gained access to them. This gave a most favorable field for the study of invasion, spread and decline of the disease. Observations made at this time in regard to hospitals seemed to suggest that certain institutions were more or less exempt, although not closed institutions, while others suffered from the first. These two types of hospital invasion are hard to reconcile.

Great stress was laid in this epidemic upon the very great morbidity and the low mortality. Simple, uncomplicated influenza at this time was looked upon as a disease that was rarely dangerous to life. Studies have shown that after this period there seemed to have been lessened morbidity. As previously stated, nearly all the numerous pandemics at various times have had their origin in Russia and arose in the late autumn or winter months. This pandemic of 1889 and the succeeding severe epidemics in Europe and North America in the years of 1891 and 1892 occurred almost exclusively in the cold weather, the summer remaining free. It is generally believed now, and was at the end of that pandemic, that atmospheric or telluric conditions had nothing to do with the spread. The origin of epidemics following the pandemics seemed to be influenced in their recurrence by the season of the year. It was conceded by observers in that pandemic also that contagion might be carried by merchandise and even flies and healthy individuals.

1918 Epidemic in Large Cities

In the city of Boston during the week ending August 28, at the Naval Station at the Commonwealth Pier, 50 cases of influenza occurred and within the next two weeks more than 2,000 were reported in the naval forces of the First Naval District. Of these 5 per cent. developed broncho-pneumonia with a mortality of more than 60 per cent. From here it probably spread to Camp Devens and thence ran rapidly over the country. There can hardly be a question that it spread along the lines of traffic. Up to November 9 there were reported 3,339 cases among the civilian population of Boston. There were 3,430 deaths from influenza, the presumption being that these were due to bronchial pneumonia, although not reported as such. The deaths from all forms of pneumonia were reported as 942, making in all 4,372 deaths from September 7 to November 9. This discrepancy—that is more deaths than reported cases of influenza—is due to the fact that influenza was not made a reportable disease until the date of October 4, fully a month from the time the epidemic appeared. The weather conditions were generally fair and no noted abnormality is recorded as compared with other years. The statement of the Health Department of this city was that, after a practical disappearance of influenza in October, there was a slight recurrence in November and a more pronounced recurrence about the first of December, since which time the cases have slowly but steadily decreased, until at present—December 21—the fatalities attributable to influenza are about 20 daily.