For Anthony Van Leuwenhoeck, consult the Phil. Trans. for 1695–1697, Vol. XIX. No. 227, p. 512; Vol. XXXII. p. 72; also the abridgments of Reid and Gray, Vol. VI. p. 170, and of Eames and Martyn, Vol. VI. part. ii. pp. 277–278.
A.D. 1775.—Volta (Alessandro), an Italian natural philosopher and Professor at the University of Pavia, who had already, in 1769, addressed to Beccaria a Latin dissertation, “De Vi Attractivâ ignis electrici,” etc., makes known his invention of the electrophorus, a sort of perpetual reservoir of electricity. This consists of two circular metallic plates having between them a round disc of resin, which is excited by being struck a number of times with either a silk kerchief or pieces of dry warm fur or flannel. During 1782 he discovered what he called an electrical condenser, wherein the disc of resin is replaced by a plate of marble or of varnished wood. With this he is reported (Philosophical Transactions, Vol. LXXII) to have ascertained the existence of negative electricity in the vapour of water, in the smoke of burning coals, and in the gas produced by a solution of iron in weak sulphuric acid. An account of the above named and of other discoveries, as well as of various experiments, appears in letters addressed by him to Prof. Don Bassiano Carminati, of the Pavia Medical University, April 3, 1792, and to Tiberius Cavallo, Sept. 13, and Oct. 25, 1792, as shown in the Philosophical Transactions of the Royal Society, which institution gave him its gold Copley medal.
Volta’s crowning effort lies in the discovery of the development of electricity in metallic bodies and in the production of the justly famous pile which bears his name. The latter consisted of an equal number of zinc and copper discs separated by circular plates of cloth, paper or pasteboard soaked in salt-water or dilute acid, all being suitably connected to develop a large quantity of the electric fluid. Thus, says Dr. Dickerson in his address at Princeton College, Volta gave to the world that new manifestation of electricity called Galvanism. In that form this subtle agent is far more manageable than in the form of static electricity; and by the use of galvanic batteries a current of low tension, but of enormously greater power, can be maintained with little difficulty; whereas static electricity is like lightning, and readily leaps and escapes on the surfaces on which it is confined.
“It was Volta who removed our doubtful knowledge. Such knowledge is the early morning light of every advancing science, and is essential to its development; but the man who is engaged in dispelling that which is deceptive in it, and revealing more clearly that which is true, is as useful in his place and as necessary to the general progress of science as he who first broke through the intellectual darkness and opened a path into knowledge before unknown” (Faraday’s “Researches”).
The last mentioned discovery, though made in 1796, was first announced only on the 20th of March, 1800, in a letter written from Como to Sir Joseph Banks, by whom it was communicated to the Royal Society. It was publicly read June 26, 1800 (Phil. Trans. for 1800, Part II. p. 408).
At pp. 428–429 of “La Revue Scientifique,” Paris, April 8, 1905, will be found a review of J. Bosscha’s work entitled “La correspondance de A. Volta et de M. Van Marum,” published at Leyden. Bosscha calls especial attention to letters numbered XIII and XIV, dated respectively August 30 and October 11, 1792, wherein Volta describes his construction of the apparatus which, as already stated, was not made known until March 20, 1800. M. Bosscha’s work is also referred to in the “Journal des Savants” for August 1905.
Volta, at about the same period, constructed an electrical battery, which has been named La Couronne de Tasses (the crown of cups), and which consisted of a number of cups arranged in a circle, each cup containing a saline liquid and supporting against its edges a strip of zinc and one of silver. As the upper part of each zinc strip was connected by a wire with a strip of silver in the adjoining cup, the silver strip of the first cup and the zinc strip of the last cup formed the poles of the battery. It is said that twenty such combinations decomposed water, and that thirty gave a distinct shock.
On the 16th, 18th and 20th of November 1800 (Brumaire an. IX), Volta, who had obtained permission of the Italian Government to go to Paris with his colleague Prof. Brugnatelli, delivered lectures and experimented before the French National Institute (Sue, “Histoire du Galvanisme,” Vol. II. p. 267). As a member of the latter body, Bonaparte, the First Consul, who had attended the second lecture and witnessed the electro-chemical decomposition of water, proposed that a gold medal be stuck to commemorate Volta’s discovery, and that a commission be formed to repeat all of Volta’s experiments upon a large scale. The commission embraced such prominent men as Laplace, Coulomb, Hallé, Monge, Fourcroy, Vauquelin, Pelletan, Charles, Brisson, Sabathier, Guyton De Morveau and Biot. Biot, the chairman of the commission, made a report December 11, 1800, which appears in Vol. V of the Mémoires de l’Institut National de France, as well as in the Annales de Chimie, Vol. XLI. p. 3. In addition to the gold medal, Volta received from Bonaparte the sum of six thousand francs and the cross of the Legion of Honour.
To Volta has been attributed the fact of having, as early as 1777, entertained the idea of an electric telegraph, although nothing more appears to be on record in relation to the matter. Fahie quotes a letter of Sir Francis Ronalds, alluding to an autograph manuscript, dated Como, April 15, 1777, and gives its translation by César Cantu, wherein Volta states that he does not doubt the possibility of exploding his electrical pistol at Milan, through wires supported by posts, whenever he discharges a powerful Leyden jar at Como.
References.—Arago, “Eloge Historique de Volta” and “Notices Biographiques,” Tome I. p. 234 (“Raccolta Pratica di Scienze,” etc. for March and April 1835); London Times of January 26, 1860; the eulogies pronounced by Giorn. Fogliani at Como and by G. Zuccala at Bergamo, the year of Volta’s death, 1827; P. Sue, “Histoire du Galvanisme,” Tome II. p. 267; Journal de Leipzig, Tome XXXIV; Scelta d’ Opuscoli, Vols. VIII. p. 127; IX. p. 91; X. p. 87; XII. p. 94; XIV. p. 84; XXVIII. p. 43; XXXIV. p. 65; Opuscoli Scelti, Vols. I. pp. 273, 289; VII. pp. 128, 145; XV. pp. 213, 425; XXI. p. 373; “Mem. dell’ I. R. Istit. Reg. L. V.,” Vol. I. p. 24; “Mem. dell’ Istit. Nazion. Ital.,” Vol. I. p. 125; “Memor. Soc. Ital.,” Vols. II., pp. 662, 900; V. p. 551; “Bibl. Fisica d’Europa” for 1788; “Giornale Fis.-Med.,” Vols. I. p. 66; II. pp. 122, 146, 241, 287; III. p. 35; IV. p. 192; V. p. 63; “Giornale dell’ Ital. Lettera,” etc., Vol. VIII. p. 249; L. V. Brugnatelli, “Annali di Chimica,” etc., Vols. II. p. 161; III. p. 36; V. p. 132; XI. p. 84; XIII. p. 226; XIV. pp. 3, 40; XVI. pp. 3, 27, 42; XVIII. pp. 3, 7; XIX. p. 38; XXI. pp. 79, 100, 163; XXII. pp. 223–249 (Aless. Volta and Pietro Configliachi); Aless. Volta and Angelo Bellani, “Sulla formazione,” etc., Milano, 1824; F. A. C. Gren, Neues Journal der Physik, Vols. III and IV for 1796 and 1797; Rozier, Observ., Vols. VII, XXII and XXIII for 1776, 1873; J. B. Van Mons, Journal de Chimie, No. 2, pp. 129, 167; Sédillot, “Receuil Per. de la Soc. de Méd. de Paris,” IX. pp. 97, 231; Journal de Phys., Vols. XXIII. p. 98; XLVIII. p. 336; LI. p. 334; LXIX. p. 343; Annales de Chimie, Vols. XXX. p. 276; XLIV. p. 396; Nicholson’s Journal, Vol. XV. p. 3; Phil. Tr. for 1778, 1782 and 1793; “Soc. Philom.,” An. IX. p. 48, An. X. p. 74; “Bibl. Brit.,” Vol. XIX. p. 274; Le Correspondant for August, 1867, p. 1059, and Les Mondes, December 5, 1867, p. 561; Highton, “The Elec. Tel.,” 1852, pp. 13 and 28; Robertson, “Mémoires Récréatifs,” 1840, Vol. I. chaps, x. and xiii.; Miller, “Hist. Philos. Illustrated,” London, 1849, Vol. IV. p. 333, note; Achille Cazin, “Traité théorique et pratique des piles électriques,” Paris, 1881; “Mémoires de l’lnstitut” (Hist.) An. XII. p. 195; Andrew Crosse, “Experiments in Voltaic Electricity,” London, 1815 (Phil. Mag., Vol. XLVI. p. 421, and Gilbert’s “Annalen,” Bd. s. 60); “Lettere sulla Meteorol.,” 1783; Theod. A. Von Heller, in Gilb. “Annal.,” Vols. IV and VI, 1800; and Gren’s Neues Journ., 1795, 1797; “L’Arc Voltaique,” by M. Paul Janet, in “Revue Générale des Sciences,” May 15, 1902, pp. 416–422; “L’Académie des Sciences,” par Ernest Maindron, Paris, 1888, pp. 245–251; “Philosophical Magazine,” Vol. IV. pp. 59, 163, 306; Vol. XIII. pp. 187–190 [re prize founded by Napoleon); Vol. XXI. p. 289 (electrophorus); Vol. XXVIII. p. 182 (theory of Pierre Hyacinthe Azais), and p. 297 (Paul Erman on “Voltaic Phenomena”); Thomson, “Hist. of Chemistry,” Vol. II. pp. 251–252; “Dict. de Gehler,” Vols. III. p. 665; VI. pp. 475, 484; Thomas Thomson, “Hist. of the Royal Soc.,” London, 1812, p. 451; Young’s “Lectures,” Vol. I. pp. 674, 677, 678, 683; see likewise the “Theory of the Action of the Galvanic Pile,” as given by Dr. Wm. Henry at s. 5 Vol. I. of his “Elements of Experimental Chemistry,” London, 1823; also Nicholson’s Journal for Henry’s essay in Vol. XXXV. p. 259; M. De Luc’s papers in Vol. XXXII. p. 271, and Vol. XXXVI. p. 97; Mr. Singer on the “Electric Column” in Vol. XXXVI. p. 373; Dr. Bostock’s essay in Thomson’s “Annals,” Vol. III. p. 32; Sir H. Davy’s chapter on “Electrical Attraction and Repulsion,” in his “Elements of Chem. Philos.,” p. 125; the first volume of Gay-Lussac and Thénard’s “Recherches”; Johann Mayer, “Abhandlungen ... Galvani, Valli, Carminati u. Volta,” etc., Prague, 1793; Lehrbuch der Meteor., von L. F. Kaemtz, Halle, 1832, Vol. II. pp. 398, 400, 418; M. Detienne et M. Rouland in Jour. de Phys., Vol. VII. for 1776; J. N. Hallé, “Exposition Abrégée,” etc. (“Bull. des Sc. de la Soc. Philom.,” An. X. No. 58); C. B. Désormes’ very extended observations recorded in the An. de Ch., Vol. XXXVII. p. 284; Volta’s letter to Prof. F. A. C. Gren in 1794, and Wilkinson, “El. of Galv.,” Vol. II. pp. 314–325; J. F. Ackerman (“Salz. Mediechirurg,” 1792, p. 287); Cadet (An. de Ch., Vol. XXXVII. p. 68); letter written by Volta to M. Dolomieu (“Bull. de la Société Philom.,” No. 55, p. 48); Friedlander’s “Experiments” (Jour. de Phys., Pluvoise, An. IX. p. 101); Paul Erman (Jour. de Phys., Thermidor, An. IX. p. 121); Gilbert’s “Annalen,” VIII, X, XI, XIV); Jour. de Phys., Tome LIII p. 309; Jour. de Médecine, Nivose, An. IX. p. 351; P. C. Abilgaard,“Tentamina Electrica”; C. H. Wilkinson, “Elements of Galvanism,” etc., London, 1804, 2 vols. passim; A. W. Von Hauch’s Memoir read before the Copenhagen Acad. of Sc. (Sue, “Hist. du Galv.,” 1802, Vol. II. p. 255); Alexander Nicoläus Scherer’s Journal, 31st book; “Abstracts of Papers of Roy. Soc.,” Vol. I. p. 27; also Hutton’s abridgments of the Phil. Trans. Vol. XV. p. 263; Vol. XVII. p. 285; Vol. XVIII. pp. 744, 798; Phil. Magazine, Vol. IV. pp. 59, 163, 306; “Bibliothèque Britannique,” Genève, 1796, Vol. XV. an. viii. p. 3; Vol. XIX for 1802, pp. 270, 274, 339; Vol. XVI, N.S. for 1821, pp. 270–309; account of the immense electrophorus constructed for the Empress of Russia, in Vol. I. of “Acta Petropolitana” for 1777, pp. 154, etc. In the Philosophical Transactions for 1778, pp. 1027, 1049, will be found Ingen-housz’s paper relating to the then recent invention of Volta’s electrophorus and to Mr. Henley’s experiments. It is said that at about this time (1778), John Jacob Mumenthaler, Swiss mechanic, constructed very effective electrophori and electric machines out of a very peculiar kind of paper. M. F. Vilette also made a paper electrophorus which is alluded to by J. A. Nollet (“Experiments Letters,” Vol. III. pp. 209, etc.). Consult, besides, Carlo Barletti, “Lettera al Volta ...” Milano, 1776; W. L. Krafft, “Tentatem theoriæ ...” Petropol, 1778; J. C. Schäffer, “Abbild. Beschr. d. elek. ...” Regensberg, 1778; Georg Pickel, “Experimenta physico-medica ...” Viceburgi, 1778–1788; J. A. Klindworth, “Kurze Beschr. ...” Gotha, 1781–1785; (Lichtenberg’s “Magazin,” I. 35–45;) while for Klindworth, M. Obert and M. Minkeler, see the “Goth. Mag.,” I. ii. p. 35; V. iii. pp. 96, 110; E. G. Robertson, “Sur l’électrophore résineux et papiracé,” Paris, 1790; (Journal de Physique, Vol. XXXVII;) M. Robert on the electrophorus (Rozier, XXXVII. p. 183); S. Woods, “Essay on the phenomena ...” London, 1805; (Phil. Mag., Vol. XXI. p. 289;) M. Eynard’s “Mém. sur l’electrophore,” Lyon, 1804; John Phillips, “On a modification of the electrophorus,” London, 1833 (Phil. Mag., s. 3, Vol. II); G. Zamboni, “Sulla teoria ...” Verona, 1844 (“Mem. Soc. Ital.,” Vol. XXIII); F. A. Petrina, “Neue theorie d. elect. ...” Prag., 1846.