The existence of potentially marketable oil and gas deposits in Alaska has been recognized since the early 1900's, but it was not until the Swanson River, Alaska, oil field was discovered in 1957 and later developed that the Arctic entered the modern era of oil development (McKnight and Hiliker 1970). This field and offshore fields in the Upper Cook Inlet basin have been producing oil for nearly a decade. The discovery of petroleum reserves on Alaska's North Slope and Canada's Mackenzie River Delta is common knowledge, and a pipeline has been constructed to transport Alaska oil to a tanker facility at Valdez in Prince William Sound. Alternative proposals to pipe North Slope natural gas along the existing corridor to a facility in Prince William Sound or to build a new pipeline to take this gas to existing fields, and a planned pipeline on the Mackenzie River Delta and south through Canada, are being considered. Construction of a gas liquefaction facility in Prince William Sound and tanker traffic through the Sound and the Gulf of Alaska are potential ramifications of an Alaska gas pipeline.
As McKnight and Hiliker (1970) and Bartonek et al. (1971) pointed out, the greatest potential problem for marine bird populations from North Slope oil will be associated with the operations of the Alyeska Pipeline system's terminal at Valdez. Oil storage and ship-loading facilities at this port and heavy tanker traffic through Prince William Sound represent a pollution source that could result in significant seabird and waterfowl mortalities. Certainly, development of gas liquefaction facilities in the Sound, with inherent increases in human populations and tanker traffic, would compound this potential problem.
Although future impacts from existing petrochemical developments are cause for concern, the Federal Government's recently announced plans for oil and gas leasing on the Pacific outer continental shelf (Fig. I) eclipse the significance of North Slope and Cook Inlet oil developments. It now appears the Gulf of Alaska is the most favorable area of the outer continental shelf for oil and gas production (Council on Environmental Quality 1974). This area, covering more than 10.3 million ha, has already been subjected to extensive seismic investigations, and estimates of its undiscovered, economically recoverable crude oil and natural gas resources range from 3 to 25 billion barrels and 15 to 30 trillion cubic feet, respectively (Council on Environmental Quality 1974).
Fig. 1. North Pacific, showing portions of the outer continental shelf being considered for gas and oil leasing by the Federal Government (vertical hatching) and areas leased or proposed for leasing by the State of Alaska (cross hatching).
Kinney et al. (1970) reported that in Cook Inlet, Alaska, an estimated 0.3% of the oil produced and handled in offshore platform wells is spilled. Several routine offshore operations result in discharges of oil and other materials into water, and, unlike accidental spills, the probability of their occurrence is 100% (Council on Environmental Quality 1974). During drilling operations, cleaned drilling mud and drill cuttings are discharged overboard. Drilling mud may consist of such substances as bentonite clay, caustic soda, organic polymer, proprietary defoamer, and ferrochrome lignosulfate. Waters from geological formations are often produced and discharged into the sea while the wells are in production. These waters may be fresh or saline, and often contain small amounts of oil. All of these pollutants increase the adverse effects of offshore oil production, and when potential spills are also considered, the ultimate impact on the marine ecosystem may be substantial.
The State of Alaska has already leased offshore sites in Kachemak Bay, and present considerations for future leases in the lower Cook Inlet and Beaufort Sea further reflect the widespread and massive nature of petrochemical developments in the Arctic planned for the next 2 decades (Fig. 1). Proved crude oil reserves are less than 1 billion barrels and natural gas reserves are less than 2 trillion cubic feet in Cook Inlet, but it appears that undiscovered recoverable oil and gas resources may be much greater (Council on Environmental Quality 1974). There are also indications that known onshore oil reserves along Alaska's northwest coast will soon be opened for development by the Arctic Slope Regional Corporation, landowners in the area as a result of the Native Land Claims Act of 1971. This group is at least considering the transportation of these petroleum products to market in tankers, from an open-water port in the Chukchi Sea—thereby adding to the tanker traffic in northern waters.
Hard Mineral Resource Development
As indicated by Bartonek et al. (1971), there has been renewed interest in opening up Alaska's hard mineral resources to economic development as new transportation routes and modes have been developed. Plans are being completed to develop the Bering River coal field, with the eventual goal of exporting coking coal to Japan. Although mining operations might ultimately affect freshwater environments to the detriment of several waterfowl species, including the trumpeter swan (Olor buccinator), the chief cause for concern will be additional freighter traffic through Prince William Sound. Similar plans to develop Klukwan and Snettisham iron deposits in southeastern Alaska for the use of Japanese industry (Bartonek et al. 1971) may result in the imposition of further traffic in Alaska shipping lanes.