Science lent its aid to practical men, and not only exhausted chemical ingenuity in preparing powder and metal, but mathematical formulas were made for the artilleryman, and value of ricochet firing was discovered. Louis XIV founded several artillery schools, and initiated the construction of many arsenals. Fontainebleau, the French artillery school which trained many Americans during the World War had its beginning in this period. Finally, the artillery was organized on a battery and a regimental basis, and careful rules were made for the tactics of the guns. These were served by dismounted men and generally hauled by contract horses.
Although sensibly improved, the artillery was far from being skillfully managed and was slow firing; it usually stood in small bodies all along the line of battle. It was heavy and hard to handle and haul, principally because the same guns were used for both siege and field work, and was far from being, even relatively to the other arms, the weapon which it is to-day.
In 1765 General Gribeauval of France introduced artillery improvements, especially in the carriages, and formed a distinct artillery service for the field which was lighter than the old service and was drawn by teams which were harnessed double as they are to-day.
Howitzers were introduced in France in 1749. The weapons were given an early sort of perfection by the Dutch. The term “howitzer” comes from the German “haubitz.” In 1808 the first shrapnel appeared at Vimera. It was invented by an English colonel by the name of Shrapnel. At the time it was known as case shot. The type employed by Napoleon, had a fuze that could be used at two different ranges. The French still have this type in their armament.
Field artillery now began to appear in the form which it was to retain with but a few changes, until the era of the modern field carriage. The cradle disappeared, muzzle-loading guns cast with trunnions taking its place, and a stepped wedge resting on the trail superseded the pin and arc. With the exception of the gun, most parts of these carriages were of wood and were to remain so until 1870, when metal carriages came into general use. Muzzle loading guns had supplanted breech-loaders because of the poor obturation and the many accidents resulting from use of the latter type. Although numerous experiments were made, breech-loading guns did not come into vogue again until 1850, when the experiments of Major Cavalli (1845), the Walnendorff gun (1846) and the Armstrong gun (1854), produced satisfactory types.
Up to 1860 practically all guns were smooth bore. Even during the Civil War the smooth bore was generally used, although the rifled gun began to make an appearance and was used in small numbers by both sides at the battle of Gettysburg. Some breech loaders began to appear at the same time. Improvement in the ballistic properties of the gun necessitated a corresponding improvement in the sighting facilities. In 1880 rifled breech loading and built-up steel cannon came into general use. Rifled guns shoot accurately and as a result, improved methods in direct laying were devised.
The period between from 1880 to the present, has brought about changes in gun construction which, possibly, have been equaled in importance to artillery only by the present change which is taking place in the means of artillery transportation and self-propelling mounts. In this period in rapid succession came the modern breechblock and with it the rapid firing gun. This brought about the change to the present system of breaking the force of recoil of the gun and restoring it to its firing position without disturbing the position of the carriage. This added to the possibilities of rapid and more accurate fire. Then came the invention and use in the field artillery of smokeless powder. Previous to this time the great amount of smoke produced by the black powder when the piece was fired retarded the rapidity of fire because it enveloped the materiel in a thick cloud of smoke which obscured the target and made it impossible to fire again until the smoke had blown away. It made concealed positions for the artillery almost impossible. The advent of smokeless powder made firing more rapid and made possible the selection of concealed positions. This in turn made indirect fire feasible and necessitated the development of better sights. Indirect fire increased the rapidity of fire and gave to the commanders of firing units a greater control over their fire. With the use of recoil mechanisms and shields for the guns, the cannoneers were permitted to serve the piece continuously—a condition which was impossible with the recoiling carriage. The shields made it almost impossible to put the gun out of action unless some vital part of the mechanism was destroyed.
The first of the modern carriages which were produced in the early nineties should be classified as semi-rapid carriages, as the recoil brakes were so abrupt that the carriage was not stable and jumped considerably, gaining for the type the sobriquet of “grass-hopper guns.”
In 1897 the immortal French “75” was born, the pioneer of all modern quick-firing field guns, which still maintains its superiority in many respects over later designs.
In 1902 our own 3-inch field gun was produced and still finds favor among many of our field artillery officers, even over the French “75.”