(f.) The most important change, however, which has been made is in regard to the War Schools—the Schools at which officers of all arms receive their professional instruction. Since 1856 they have been entirely re-organized, and placed under the direct control of the Central Educational Department; a much higher class of teachers are employed; the character of the instruction has been greatly improved; and attendance at one of these schools is, with rare exceptions, made compulsory upon every one before obtaining a commission. These schools hold a most important position in the Prussian system of military education, and the greatest pains are bestowed on making them answer the purpose for which they are intended—that of giving a thoroughly practical instruction in military subjects to candidates for commissions. The improvements made in the War Schools show the greatly increased importance attached of late years in Prussia to the professional instruction of officers.
[2.] However different the French and Prussian systems may be in some respects, they both agree in this—that no attempt is made to give a special military education at an early age, that a general education is made the ground-work of the professional training, and that at least up to the age of 17 or 18 the future officer receives the same kind of education as the civilian, and in the great majority of cases receives it at the ordinary schools of the country. In Austria, also, the same principle seems now to have been adopted. The cadet schools in Prussia are no exception to the rule, for the instruction at them, except in the two upper classes at Berlin, is the same as at civil schools. The principle of deferring military education to a comparatively late age is, indeed, in Prussia carried even to a greater extent than in France, for all professional instruction is postponed until after the service has been entered, and regimental duty been performed for nearly a year. The few who enter the army from the Ober-prima and Selecta of the Cadet Corps (not amounting to 70 each year) are the only individuals who receive any military instruction before joining the service, and in their case this special instruction does not commence until the age of 17. So strongly is this principle insisted upon, that even for the artillery and engineers there is no preparatory military education, and the special instruction of the officers of these arms is not given until after they have been some years in the service. The idea in Prussia is that a young man can derive no advantage from studying the theory of the military profession until he has learnt the practice of it. “What use can it be,” it was said, “to talk to a lad of the principles of tactics, when he does not even know the movements of a battalion, and perhaps has never seen one on parade?”
[3.] After, however, entering the service all the officers of the Prussian army receive a careful professional instruction—that given at the War Schools. The course is of an essentially practical character, comprising only strictly military subjects, and excluding such studies as mathematics and even languages.
[4.] The officers of the staff do not necessarily receive any special training previous to their appointment; but in Prussia this is of less importance, as from the professional education which every officer has had, those appointed to the staff, even if they have not passed through the Senior Department, must at least be acquainted with field sketching and military regulations, and know something of fortifications and artillery. Moreover, after appointment, means are taken in the “staff expeditions” which occur annually, to instruct them in their practical duties, and (as is the case also in France with the officers of the Staff Corps) to insure their keeping up the knowledge of field sketching and reconnaissance which they had previously acquired.
[5.] The connection which exists in Prussia between the military system and the general education of the country is remarkable. Portefée-fahnrich, examinations are not only based on the course of instruction at civil schools, but have been also used as a means of raising the character of the education given at these schools. On the one hand, the advantages offered to Abiturienten and to those who have been at a university, indicate a wish to encourage men of liberal education to enter the army as officers; on the other hand, by making exemption from the ordinary period of compulsory service in the ranks dependent (among other conditions) on educational attainments, the military system has been employed as an engine for stimulating education among the middle classes.
[6.] The general management of military education is vested in a single officer, the Inspector-General. He is assisted by two Boards or Councils, the Board of Studies in matters connected with the general system of instruction, and the Supreme Examination Board in regard to the examinations and qualifications for commissions. The system of education has been still further centralized since 1856, especially in the case of the War Schools; and much of the progress that has been made is ascribed to the unity now given to the whole system of instruction. At the same time each of the educational institutions has its own Board of Studies, similar to the conseils d’instruction, at the French schools, who are charged with the general control of the course of study and with the duty of making suggestions for its improvement. Several of the professors, both civil and military, are always members of this Board; so that the benefit of their practical experience is secured, and the control of the instruction is never left entirely in the hands of one man, nor even exclusively of military men. The introduction of the civilian element into these Boards is deserving of notice; not merely the professors of the schools, but eminent men connected with the University of Berlin are employed upon them, and have a voice in determining the system of military education.
[7.] In discipline the heads of the various schools are almost entirely supreme. At the War Schools the young men are subject to military law, being already in the army; at the Cadet Schools this is not the case, but the discipline is strictly military in character. At both establishments the regulations are extremely stringent, and the slightest irregularity entails punishment. But the importance attached to the exercise of moral influence over the pupils, the personal interest taken in them, and the kindly relations existing between them and the officers, make the system of discipline much less rigidly military than it is at the French schools. Both at the War Schools and the Cadet House, specific punishments are attached to idleness.
[8.] In the appointment of the heads of the various schools and of the subordinate officers employed at them, great attention seems to be paid to selecting individuals fitted for the posts both by educational experience and by personal qualities. There appears to be rather a general opinion that the instructors at most of the schools are underpaid, and that this, combined with the preference frequently given to active military life, prevents the posts being much sought after by the ablest officers. On the other hand, however, selection for such appointments is always regarded as a distinction; and in the Prussian army mere honorary distinctions, altogether irrespective of material advantages, are held in much higher estimation than is probably the case in any other service.
[9.] The most marked point of contrast between the French and Prussian systems of military education consists in the thoroughly competitive character of the former. In Prussia the principle of competition, though to a certain extent recognized, is little applied in practice, and never perhaps fully and strictly carried out. For promotion to the highest class (the Selecta) of the Berlin Cadet house there is considerable competition among the pupils, and admission to the War Academy is obtained by competitive examination open to all the officers of the army; but even in these two cases personal and other considerations come more or less into play, and the rewards can not be said to be thrown open to pure competition. All the other military examinations are simply qualifying, and there is no attempt to afford the stimulus of publishing a list of the candidates arranged in order of merit. In fact the term “competitive examination” scarcely seems to be understood in Prussia. The pecuniary assistance afforded by the State for the education of boys in the Cadet Schools is dependent solely on the circumstances and services of the father, not on the abilities of the candidate himself.
10. The objections expressed to the further introduction of a competitive system appear to be universally entertained in the Prussian army. The object in Prussia seems to be, not to attempt to establish an accurate comparison of the educational attainments of a number of individuals, but to form a general estimate of the abilities, character, and military capacity of each. The army generally are not considered to be losers by the rejection of the competitive principle; the system of inspections and of reports from inspecting officers is so elaborate, and so many checks are provided, that the character and abilities of individual officers are well known; and appointments, certainly as a general rule, are said to be made on the ground of real merit.