decades of the eighteenth century and French and Italian operas were given before the beginning of the nineteenth, it is surely worth while to consider what part they played in the musical life of the country. The subject, of course, is bristling with difficulties. Information is scarce and not easily accessible. Much of the difficulty is due to the fact that before the nineteenth century there were no opera companies, in our sense. Operatic performances were given by regular theatrical companies whose repertory was made up partly of straight drama and partly of opera. Artistic versatility was a characteristic of the period, and performers like Mrs. Oldmixon and Miss Broadhurst were prominent not only on the dramatic and operatic stage, but also on the concert platform. Our search for the beginnings of opera, therefore, lead us naturally to early records of the American theatre, and an examination of these elucidates some interesting facts.
I
The first mention of theatrical performances in America is found in the whimsical autobiography of the mercurial Tony Aston—'Gentleman, Lawyer, Poet, Actor, Soldier, Sailor, Exciseman, Publican; in England, Scotland, Ireland, New York, East and West Jersey, Maryland, Virginia (on both sides Cheesapeek), North and South Carolina, South Florida, Bahamas, Jamaica, Hispaniola, and often a Coaster by all the same.' In the 'beginning of Queen Anne's reign,' he tells us, he arrived at Port Royal Harbor where Governor Moore was about to start on an expedition against St. Augustine. This was in September, 1702. Tony accompanied Moore and returned with him to Charleston in January, 1703. 'Well,' he says, 'we arrived in Charles-Town, full of Lice, Shame, Poverty, Nakedness and Hunger:—I turned Player and Poet and wrote one Play on the Subject of the Country.' We may assume, therefore, that Charleston witnessed theatrical performances in 1703. In the same year the redoubtable Tony went to New York. 'There,' he says, 'I lighted of my old Acquaintance Jack Charlton, Fencing Master, ... after acting, writing, courting, fighting that Winter ... my kind Captain Davis ... gave me free passage for Virginia....' Apparently, then, there were theatrical performances in New York in the winter of 1703-04.
Whether these and the performances in Charleston were the beginning of the theatre in America, we cannot say, nor do we know if they included operas. Quite probably they did. The autobiography from which we have quoted prefaced the published edition of Tony Aston's 'Fool's Opera' and it has been inferred that his work was played during Aston's visit to America. As it was published several years after his return to England there is not much reason to believe that New York or Charleston heard it, but Aston's evident interest in works of the kind would indicate that he exhibited his talent in such entertainments while he was in this country. It may, however, be pointed out that opera was not in high favor in England at that time. Beginning with 'The Siege of Rhodes' in 1656 opera was the chief form of theatrical entertainment until the end of the Commonwealth. For some peculiar reason—perhaps Cromwell's love of music—it was tolerated in spite of the ban on the theatres. But after the Restoration the drama came into its own again, and with Congreve, Wycherley, Vanburgh, and others catering brilliantly to the taste of the times, opera was temporarily neglected. Interest in it revived under Queen Anne, with the coming of Handel and the Italian opera, but, except for the temporary vogue of ballad-opera, following the production of 'The Beggar's Opera' in 1728, English opera failed to attract the popular favor. Indeed, it never reached a point where it deserved to attract favor. Except for a few weak efforts in the Italian recitative style English opera before the ballad opera was chiefly drama with incidental music. The idea was popular in Elizabethan times, as we may see from Shakespeare's plays. In the operas of the Commonwealth and Restoration periods the musical side was more emphasized, but the play was the thing, and there was no Shakespeare or Jonson or Marlowe or Beaumont and Fletcher to endow the thing with life.
So that whatever operatic performances may have resulted from Tony Aston's visit to America could not be of any importance, though they might be of some historical interest. One wonders if Tony's regrettable departure from these shores left America theatrically barren. Many years pass before we discover any sign of life. Then from Jones's 'Present State of Virginia,' published in London in 1724, we learn that a playhouse existed in Williamsburg, Va., at least as early as 1722. Ten years later New York saw the opening of a New Theatre in the building of a gentleman with the explosive appellation of Rip Van Dam. Its name would suggest that another theatre existed previously in New York. We cannot say what operas, if any, were given there, but probably the Gray-Pepusch 'Beggar's Opera,' Hill's 'The Devil to Pay,' and Fielding's 'Flora, or Hob in the Well,' were produced. At this period the ballad opera was enjoying its vogue in England, and fashions both on and off the English stage were faithfully copied in America. Almost until the end of the century ballad operas remained very popular in this country. They had very little in common with opera as we understand it and have no real place in the evolution of the art-form. The music rarely was written especially for them, but was arranged from existing compositions, especially from English, Irish, and Scotch folk-tunes. Occasionally the 'composer' showed real skill in making his adaptations, as Dr. Pepusch did in the 'Beggar's Opera,' but more frequently still the music was singularly inept and the whole entertainment bordered closely on extravaganza.
We find that 'Flora, or Hob in the Well,' was performed at the Courtroom, Charleston, in 1735, and that the New Theatre in the same city also produced 'Flora,' as well as 'The Devil to Pay,' in 1736. New York probably was giving similar performances at the same time, but we can discover nothing definite on the subject until 1739, when we note that at Henry Holt's Long Room there was performed 'A New Pantomime Entertainment in Grotesque Characters, call'd the Adventures of Harlequin and Scaramouch, or the Spaniard Trick'd. To which will be added an Optick'—whatever that was. A company of actors appeared in Philadelphia in 1749, but their advent inspired the city magistrates to 'take the most effectual measures for suppressing the disorder.' The unfortunate artists whose presence constituted a disorder then went to New York, where they fitted up a building of the Hon. Rip Van Dam as the 'Theatre in Nassau Street.' There, in 1750 and 1751, they gave a number of operatic performances, including Fielding's 'Mock Doctor,' 'The Beggar's Opera,' 'The Devil to Pay,' Cibber's 'Damon and Philida,' Fielding's 'Virgin Unmask'd,' 'Flora,' and 'Colin and Phœbe.' In 1751 they went South and, as the New York Company of Comedians, obtained from Acting Governor Lee of Virginia permission to build a theatre in Williamsburg. They played at Fredericksburg in 1752 and in the same year, as the Company of Comedians from Virginia, opened the New Theatre in Annapolis, Md., with 'The Beggar's Opera.' They also gave the 'Virgin Unmask'd,' the 'Mock Doctor,' 'Damon and Philida,' and 'The Devil to Pay.' Then, metamorphosed into the Company of Comedians from Annapolis, they appeared in upper Marlborough, where they gave 'The Beggar's Opera,' 'With Instrumental Music to each Air, given by a Set of private Gentlemen.' We have been unable to follow them further. Part of the original New York company to which they belonged remained in that city and formed the nucleus of a new company which in 1751-52 gave a number of operas at the Nassau Street Theatre, including Carey's 'Honest Yorkshireman.'
Hallam's London Company of Comedians, subsequently the American Company and later the old American Company, continued the work of supplying Americans with regular theatrical performances, including operas. We have been unable to follow their activities in detail. In 1765 New York heard the pantomime ballad 'Harlequin's Vagaries,' perhaps the 'Harlequin Faustus' of Rich, with music by Gaillard. Three years later was given Bickerstaff's 'Love in a Village,' the music adapted by Arne from his own compositions and from the works of Handel, Boyce, Howard, Baildon, Festing, Geminiani, Galuppi, Giardini, Paradies, Abos and Agus. Everything was grist to the ballad-opera mill. Bickerstaff's 'The Maid of the Mill,' with music by Dr. S. Arnold, was played in New York in 1775.
II
Theatrical activities were naturally curtailed severely during the war, but with the establishment of peace there was a great revival. After the Revolution, indeed, the popularity of the theatre became much greater and more widespread than it ever had been before. And coincident with the popularity of the theatre came the popularity of opera. Even in Boston the old prejudice against the theatres began to disappear, though the blue laws of 1750 were still in force. Several attempts were made at various times to circumvent these laws by presenting operas under the guise of concerts, and the resulting performances must occasionally have been wonderfully concocted. We find an announcement in 1770 of 'A vocal entertainment of three acts. The songs (which are numerous) are taken from a new celebrated opera, call'd "Lionel and Clarissa."' An entry in the diary of John Rowe during the same year reads: 'In the evening I went to the Concert Hall to hear Mr. Joan read the Beggar's Opera and sing the songs.' In 1792 Alexander gave in Boston 'a musical entertainment called the Poor Soldier delivered,' and from that time forward the friends of opera in Boston met with no opposition, though it was long before Boston became an operatic city.
In the meantime Maria Storer was winning fame throughout the country as a ballad opera singer. Such pleasant and innocuous pieces as 'Thomas and Sally,' 'Dorcas and Squire,' and 'Lionel and Clarissa' were very popular at the time, and old favorites like the 'Beggar's Opera' and 'The Devil to Pay' held their own with a vitality that was surprising. The fact is that the American people, exhausted by the labor and suffering of the war, were in the state of mind now generally ascribed to 'the tired business man,' and the English ballad opera was just the sort of light entertainment they needed. English opera retained its popularity, especially in New York, until well into the nineteenth century; but from about the year 1790 it was forced to compete with French and Italian opera introduced by refugees from France and St. Domingo, and gradually it lost ground until eventually it disappeared completely.