The reference letters are used in two ways: they are either (1) placed at the end of a sentence, in which case they designate an actual quotation, or (2) they are placed against the name of an author, in which case they designate an authority cited but not necessarily quoted. Each reference letter at the end of a sentence refers to all the matter that precedes it back to the last similarly placed reference letter. The quotation thus designated may be of any length,—a few sentences or many pages. This quotation may contain reference letters of the second type just explained, but, if so, these may be altogether disregarded in determining the limits of the quotation; the context will make it clear that there is no change of authorship. On the other hand, however continuous the narrative may seem, a reference letter at the end of a sentence must always be understood to divide one quotation from another.

All this may seem a trifle complex as told here, but it will be found admirably simple and effective in practice. The reader has but to make the experiment, to find that he can trace the authorship of every line of the work without the slightest difficulty. It may be well to add, however, that the reference letter a is reserved for editorial matter, and that, very exceptionally, this letter is used in combination with another letter, as ab, ac, ad, to give credit for matter that has been editorially adapted, but not quoted verbatim. It is perhaps hardly necessary to explain that direct quotations, such as go to make up the bulk of our work, are often given in an abbreviated form through the omission of matter that is redundant or, for any reason, inadmissible. The necessity for such change is obvious, since otherwise the varied materials could not possibly be made to harmonise or to meet the needs of our space. But, beyond this, no liberty whatever is taken with matter presented as a direct quotation. Where editorial modification is thought necessary, the use of reference letters makes such modification feasible without introducing the slightest ambiguity. We repeat that every line of the work is ascribed to its proper source with the utmost fidelity. Any matter not otherwise accredited—as, for example, various introductions, chronologies, bibliographies, and the like—will be understood to be editorial. Brackets also indicate editorial matter.

CONTENTS

VOLUME I
[PART I. PROLEGOMENA]
[BOOK I. HISTORY, HISTORIANS, AND THE WRITING OF HISTORIES]
PAGE
CHAPTER I
[Some General Considerations][1]
The oriental period, [2]. The classical historians, [3]. The mediæval and modernhistories, [4].
CHAPTER II
[Materials for the Writing of History][5]
CHAPTER III
[The Methods of the Historians][9]
CHAPTER IV
[World Histories][13]
CHAPTER V
[The Present History][22]
[BOOK II. A GLIMPSE INTO THE PREHISTORIC PERIOD]
CHAPTER I
[Introductory][32]
CHAPTER II
[Cosmogony—Ancient and Modern Ideas as to the Origin of the World][33]
CHAPTER III
[Cosmology and Geography—Ancient and Modern Ideas][38]
CHAPTER IV
[The Antiquity of the Earth and of Man][40]
CHAPTER V
[The Races of Man and the Aryan Question][43]
CHAPTER VI
[On Prehistoric Culture][45]
Language, [44]. Clothing and housing of prehistoric man, [46]. The use of fire,[46]. Implements of peace and war, [47]. The domestication of animals, [47]. Agriculture,[48]. Government, [49]. The arts of painting, sculpture, and decorative architecture,[50]. The art of writing, [50].
[PART II. EGYPT]
[Introductory Essay. Egypt as a World Influence.] By Dr. Adolf Erman[57]
[Egyptian History in Outline (4400-332 B.C.)][65]
CHAPTER I
[The Egyptian Race and its Origin][77]
The country and its inhabitants, [81]. Prehistoric Egypt, [88].
CHAPTER II
[The Old Memphis Kingdom (ca. 4400-2700 B.C.)][90]
The first dynasty, [90]. The second dynasty, [92]. The third dynasty, [92]. Thepyramid dynasty, [93]. A modern account of the pyramids, [95]. The builders of thepyramids, [98]. The beautiful Nitocris, [104].
CHAPTER III
[The Old Theban Kingdom (ca. 2700-1635 B.C.)][106]
The eleventh dynasty, [106]. The voyage to Punt, [108]. The twelfth dynasty,[110]. Monuments of the twelfth dynasty; a classical view, [113]. The ruins of Karnak,[115]. The fall of the Theban kingdom, [117]. The foreign rule, [118]. The Hyksosrule; the seventeenth dynasty, [121].
CHAPTER IV
[The Restoration (ca. 1635-1365 B.C.)][126]
Eighteenth dynasty, [126]. The Hyksos expulsion: Aahmes and his successors,[127]. Tehutimes II; Queen Hatshepsu, [133]. Triumphs of Tehutimes III; his successors,[136].
CHAPTER V
[The Nineteenth Dynasty (ca. 1365-1285 B.C.)][141]
King Seti, [142]. Ramses (II) the Great, [144]. The war-poem of Pentaur, [148].The kingdom of the Kheta and the nineteenth dynasty, [150]. Death of Ramses II, [153].
CHAPTER VI
[The Finding of the Royal Mummies][155]
How came these monarchs here? [157].
CHAPTER VII
[The Period of Decay (Nineteenth and Twentieth Dynasties: ca. 1285-655 B.C.)][162]
Meneptah, [162]. From Setnekht to Ramses VIII and Meri-Amen Meri-Tmu, [166].The sorrows of a soldier, [170]. Egypt under the dominion of mercenaries, [171]. TheEthiopian conquest, [174]. Table of contemporaneous dynasties, [179].
CHAPTER VIII
[The Closing Scenes (Twenty-sixth To Thirty-first Dynasties: 655-322 B.C.)][180]
Psamthek, [180]. The good king Sabach (Shabak) and Psammetichus, [184]. Therestoration in Egypt, [185]. The Persian conquest and the end of Egyptian autonomy,[188]. The atrocities of Cambyses, [191].
CHAPTER IX
[Manners and Customs of the Egyptians][196]
The position of the king, [198]. Weapons of war, [202]. Battle methods, [205].Social customs, [208]. The Egyptians as seen by Herodotus, [212]. Homes of thepeople, [216].
CHAPTER X
[The Egyptian Religion][219]
Religious festivals and offerings, [222]. Gifts and riches of temples, [225]. Diodoruson animal worship, [228]. A modern account of the worship of Apis, the sacredbull, [232]. The methods of embalming the dead, [236].
CHAPTER XI
[Egyptian Culture][240]
The hieroglyphics, [249]. “By what characters, pictures, and images the learnedEgyptians expressed the mysteries of their mindes,” [250]. The riddle of the sphinx,[251]. Literature, [257]. The Castaway: a tale of the twelfth dynasty, [260].
CHAPTER XII
[Concluding Summary of Egyptian History][263]
APPENDIX A
[Classical Traditions][267]
Another ancient account of the Nile, [273]. A Greek view of the origins of Egyptianhistory, [278].
APPENDIX B
[The Problem of Egyptian Chronology][287]
Manetho’s table of the Egyptian dynasties, [291].
[Brief Reference-List of Authorities by Chapters][293]
[A General Bibliography of Egyptian History][295]
[PART III. MESOPOTAMIA]
[Introductory Essay. The Relations of Babylonia with other Semitic Countries.] By Joseph Halévy[309]
[Mesopotamian History in Outline (6000-538 B.C.)][318]
CHAPTER I
[Land and People][337]
The land, [338]. Original peoples of Babylon: the Sumerians, [342]. The SemiticBabylonians, [344]. The original home of the Babylonian Semite, [347].
CHAPTER II
[Old Babylonian History (ca. 4500-745 B.C.)][349]
The beginnings of history, [351]. The rulers of Shirpurla, [351]. Kings of Kishand Gishban, [356]. The first dynasty of Ur, [359]. Kings of Agade, [360]. The kingsof Ur, [363]. Accession of a south Arabian dynasty, [363]. The Kassite dynasty, [364].Assyrian conquest of Babylon, [364].
CHAPTER III
[The Rise of Assyria (ca. 3000-726 B.C.)][366]
Land and people, [369]. Assyrian capitals: Asshur and Nineveh, [371]. The rise ofAssyria, [372]. The first great Assyrian conqueror, [377]. The reign and cruelty ofAsshurnazirpal, [380]. Shalmaneser II and his successors, [387]. Tiglathpileser III,[391]. Shalmaneser IV, [395].
CHAPTER IV
[Four Generations of Assyrian Greatness (722-626 B.C.)][397]
Sennacherib, [403]. Esarhaddon and Asshurbanapal, [416]. Esarhaddon’s reign,[419]. Asshurbanapal’s early years, [425]. The Brothers’ War, [431]. The last wars ofAsshurbanapal, [434].
CHAPTER V
[The Decline and Fall of Assyria (626-606 B.C.)][438]
Last years and fall of the Assyrian Empire, [440].
CHAPTER VI
[Renascence and Fall of Babylon (555-538 B.C.)][446]
Contemporary chronology, [448]. Nabopolassar and Nebuchadrezzar, [449]. Thefollowers of Nebuchadrezzar, [453]. The reign of Nabonidus, [455].
CHAPTER VII
[Manners and Customs of Babylonia-Assyria][460]
War methods, [460]. Our sources, [461]. Assyrian war costumes and warmethods, [468]. The arts of peace in Babylonia-Assyria, [472]. Babylon and itscustoms described by an eye-witness, [473]. A later classical account of Babylon, [479].The commerce of the Babylonians, [484]. Ships among the Assyrians, [491]. Laws ofthe Babylonians and Assyrians, [494]. Sale of a slave, [496]. Sale of a house, [497].The code of Khammurabi, [498]. The discovery of the code, [498]. Miscellaneous regulations,[501]. Regulations concerning slaves, [502]. Provisions concerning robbery,[502]. Concerning leases and tillage, [503]. Concerning canals, [504]. Commerce, debt,[504]. Domestic legislation, divorce, inheritance, [505]. Laws concerning adoption,[509]. Laws of recompense, [509]. Regulations concerning physicians and veterinarysurgeons, [510]. Illegal branding of slaves, [510]. Regulations concerning builders,[511]. Regulations concerning shipping, [511]. Regulations concerning the hiring ofanimals, farming, wages, etc., [511]. Regulations concerning the buying of slaves,[513].
CHAPTER VIII
[The Religion of the Babylonians and Assyrians][515]
The Assyrian story of the creation, [520]. The Babylonian religion, [521]. Theepic of Gilgamish, [525]. Ishtar’s descent into Hades, [530].
CHAPTER IX
[Babylonian and Assyrian Culture][534]
Literature and science, [536]. Epistolary literature, [539]. Art, [543]. Assyrianart, [552]. Assyrian sculpture and the evolution of art, [558]. A classical estimate ofChaldean philosophy and astrology, [563]. The Babylonian year, [565]. The Babylonianday and its division into hours, [566]. Assyrian science, [567].
APPENDIX A
[Classical Traditions][571]
The Creation and the Flood, described by Polyhistor, [573]. Other classical fragments:of the Chaldean kings, [575]. Of the Chaldean kings and the deluge, [576]. Ofthe tower of Babel, [577]. Of Abraham, [577]. Of Nabonassar, [577]. Of the destructionof the Jewish Temple, [577]. Of Nebuchadrezzar, [577]. Of the Chaldean kingsafter Nebuchadrezzar, [578]. Of the feast of Sacea, [579]. A fragment of Megasthenesconcerning Nebuchadrezzar, [579]. Ninus and Semiramis, [580]. Semiramis builds agreat city, [584]. Semiramis begins a career of conquest, [588]. Semiramis invadesIndia, [589]. Another view of Semiramis, [593]. Reign of Ninyas to Sardanapalus,[594]. The destruction of Nineveh, [598].
APPENDIX B
[Excavations in Mesopotamia and Their Results][600]
The ruins of Nineveh and M. Botta’s first discovery, [600]. Layard’s discoveriesat Nineveh, [604]. Later discoveries in Babylonia and Assyria, [610]. The results ofthe excavations, [612]. Treasures from Nineveh, [613]. The library of a king of Nineveh,[618]. How the Assyrian books were read, [623].
[Brief Reference-list of Authorities by Chapters][627]
[A General Bibliography of Mesopotamian History][629]

PART I. PROLEGOMENA