CONTENTS

VOLUME VIII
[PART XII. PARTHIANS, SASSANIDS, AND ARABS]
PAGE
[Introductory Essay. The Scope and Influence of Arabic History.] By Dr.Theodor Nöldeke[1]
[History in Outline of Parthians, Sassanids, and Arabs (250 B.C.-1375 A.D.)][25]
CHAPTER I
[The Parthian Empire (250 B.C.-228 A.D.)][47]
Justin’s account of the Parthians, [47]. Their customs, [48]. Seleucus and Arsaces,[49]. Wars with Rome, [51]. Modern accounts of Parthia, [53]. The Parthian empire,[53]. Arsaces and the Arsacids, [54]. Bactria and Parthia consolidate, [55]. Conquestsof Mithridates, [57]. Media and Babylonia conquered, [58]. Parthian “kingdoms,” [59].Scythian conquest of Bactria, [60]. The Scythians ravage Parthia, [61]. First conflictwith Rome, [62]. Orodes defeats the Romans, [63]. Plutarch’s account of the battle ofCarrhæ, [63]. Phraates IV repels Mark Antony, [68]. Anarchy in Parthia, [70]. TheRomans intervene, [72]. The decay of Parthian greatness, [74]. Persia conquersParthia, [75].
CHAPTER II
[The Empire of the Sassanids (228-750 A.D.)][76]
Sassanian power, [77]. Sapor fights Rome, [78]. The war with Palmyra, [79]. Anew war with Rome, [81]. Ardashir II to Bahram IV, [82]. The rule of Yezdegerd I,[83]. The Arabs aid in war with Rome, [84]. War with the Hephthalites, [85]. KavadhI, [86]. New conflict with Rome, [86]. Exploits of Mundhir, [87]. Chosroes the Just,[88]. Chosroes attacks Rome, [88]. Hormuzd IV, [91]. Civil war, [91]. Vices of ChosroesII, [93]. Conflict with Heraclius; fall of Chosroes II, [94]. Successors of ChosroesII, [95]. Anarchy and chaos, [96]. Arab incursions, [97]. Arab conquest, [98].
CHAPTER III
[Early History of the Arabs (ca. 2500 B.C.-622 A.D.)][100]
Arab history before Mohammed, [105].
CHAPTER IV
[Mohammed (570-632 A.D.)][111]
Mohammed ben Abdallah ben Abdul-Muttalib, [111]. Religious unrest, [111]. Mohammed’slife, [113]. His marriage with Khadija, [113]. Mohammed as a prophet, [115].Mohammed an outlaw, [116]. The Hegira, [117]. Battle of Bedr, [120]. Battle of Ohod,[121]. Expedition against the Jews, [123]. Siege of Medina, extermination of the Jews,[123]. Mohammed’s pilgrimage to Mecca, [125]. Subjection of Mecca, [126]. The victoryof Honain and Autas, [128]. The last years of Mohammed’s life, [130]. Gibbon’s estimateof Mohammed and Mohammedanism, [132].
CHAPTER V
[The Spread of Islam (632-661 A.D.)][145]
Abu Bekr, first caliph after Mohammed, [145]. The caliph Omar, [150]. The conquestof Persia, [151]. The Syrian conquest completed, [156]. Egypt captured, [160].The alleged burning of the library, [163]. Othman, the third caliph, [167]. Ali, [170].
CHAPTER VI
[The Omayyads (661-750 A.D.)][175]
Foundation of the Omayyads, [175]. Yazid made caliph, [176]. Siege of Mecca, [177].Abdul-Malik, caliph, [179]. Siege of Mecca, [180]. The eastern caliphate, [184]. Suleiman’sambitions, [185]. The last Omayyads, [186].
CHAPTER VII
[The Arabs in Europe (711-961 A.D.)][191]
The invasion of France, [198].
CHAPTER VIII
[The Abbasids (750-1258 A.D.)][209]
Founding of Baghdad, [209]. Harun Ar-Rashid, [210]. Al-Mamun and his successors,[211]. Baghdad under the caliphs, [213]. Gradual decline of Arabian dominionin the East, [215]. The various religious sects, [220]. The Seljuk Turks, [225]. Arabsand Turks unite against the Christians, [227]. Saladin and his successors against thecrusaders, [228]. The Mongols under Jenghiz Khan invade western Asia, [230].
CHAPTER IX
[The Decline of the Moslems in Spain (961-1609 A.D.)][233]
Almansor, [233]. Decay of power, [235]. End of the Omayyads, [238]. Independentkingdoms, [239]. The Almoravids, [240]. Dynasty of the Almohads, [246]. Battle ofLas Navas de Tolosa, [247]. The decline of Arab power, [248].
CHAPTER X
[Arab Civilisation][260]
The Koran, [260]. Doctrine of Islamism, [265]. The pilgrimage to Mecca, [267].The holy war, [270]. Arab culture, [271]. Commerce and industry, [273]. Paper, compass,and gunpowder, [274]. Influence of the Arabs on European civilisation, [276].Scholasticism, [277]. Mathematical science, [278]. Medicine, [279]. Architecture, [281].Music, [282].
CHAPTER XI
[Tribal Life of the Epic Period][284]
CHAPTER XII
[The Principles of Law in Islam][294]
[Brief Reference-List of Authorities by Chapters][305]
[PART XIII. THE CRUSADES AND THE PAPACY]
[BOOK I. THE CRUSADES]
[Introductory Essay. The Value of the Crusades in the Light of ModernHistory.] By the Reverend William Denton, M.A.[311]
[History in Outline of the Crusades (1096-1291 A.D.)][314]
CHAPTER I
[Origin of the Crusades (306-1096 A.D.)][320]
Early Christian pilgrimages, [322]. Jerusalem under the Saracens, [324]. Characterof the pilgrims, [326]. The Turks in power, [328]. Peter the Hermit, [330]. Theappeal of the emperor Alexius, [331]. Councils of Placentia and Clermont, [332]. Thefrenzy of Europe, [334].
CHAPTER II
[The First Crusade (1096-1147 A.D.)][338]
Peter the Hermit and his rabble, [339]. The leaders of the First Crusade, [340].Alexius compels homage, [342]. Numbers of the crusaders, [343]. The siege of Nicæa,[344]. Battle of Dorylæum, [345]. Principality of Edessa founded, [346]. Siege ofAntioch, [347]. A typical miracle, [349]. Jerusalem besieged, [351]. The Arab account,[352]. Godfrey elected king, [353]. Results of the First Crusade, [356].
CHAPTER III
[The Second Crusade (1147-1189 A.D.)][358]
St. Bernard, [358]. Disasters of the Germans, [361]. The French failure, [362]. Therise of Saladin, [364]. Moslem accounts of the battle of Tiberias, [374]. The fall ofJerusalem, [376].
CHAPTER IV
[The Third Crusade (1189-1193 A.D.)][379]
The Saladin tithe, [381]. Barbarossa’s crusade and death, [382]. The siege of Acreor Ptolemais, [383]. Geoffrey de Vinsauf’s account of Acre, [383]. Richard’s voyage,[386]. The French sail to Acre, [387]. Dissension between the French and Englishkings, [388]. Review of the siege, [390]. The crusaders move on Jerusalem, [392]. Theenterprise abandoned, [396]. Vinsauf’s account of Richard at Joppa, [397]. Peacebetween the kings, [402]. End and review of the Third Crusade, [404]. Death ofSaladin; Arab eulogies, [407].
CHAPTER V
[The Fourth to the Sixth Crusades (1195-1229 A.D.)][410]
Pope Celestine III promotes a crusade, [410]. The Fourth (or German) Crusade,[411]. The Fifth Crusade, [413]. Results of the Fifth Crusade, [417]. The Children’sCrusade, [419]. The Sixth Crusade, [422].
CHAPTER VI
[The Last Crusades (1239-1314 A.D.)][431]
Richard of Cornwall’s Crusade (the Seventh), [432]. The Tatar Crevasse, [433].The crusade of St. Louis (the Eighth), [434]. Battle of Mansura, [436]. De Joinville’saccount of the battle of Mansura, [437]. Results of Mansura, [441]. St. Louis a prisoner,[442]. Moslem account of St. Louis’ capture, [443]. The Christians quarrel amongthemselves, [448]. History of Antioch, [449]. Ravages of Bibars, [450]. Second crusadeand death of Louis IX, [450]. Prince Edward leaves England, [451]. Vain efforts ofGregory X, [452]. Progress of the mamelukes, [453]. Total loss of the Holy Land, [454].Fate of the military orders, [456]. Knights of St. John, [456]. The Templars in France,[457]. In other countries, [458]. Council at Vienne, [458]. The order suppressed, [459].The Crusades in the West, [459]. The Teutonic Crusade, [460]. The attack on theAlbigenses, [461]. Western assaults on the Arabs, [463]. Comparison of the two crusades,[466].
CHAPTER VII
[Consequences of the Crusades (1096-1291 A.D.)][467]
Moral effects, [468]. Political effects, [469]. Influence upon commerce, [471]. Enrichmentof cities, [472]. Colonisation, [472]. Influence on industry, [474]. The masonsorganise, [475]. Gothic architecture, [476]. Sculpture and painting, [476]. Herder’sopinion of the Crusades, [477]. Gibbon on the results of the Crusades, [479].
APPENDIX
[Feudalism (800-1450 A.D.)][481]
Bryce and Hegel on feudalism, [482]. Commencement of the feudal régime, [483].Reciprocal obligations of vassal and lord, [484]. Feudal justice, [485]. Ecclesiasticalfeudalism, [487]. The Church and the feudal army, [488]. Serfs and villeins, [489].Anarchy and violence; frightful condition of the peasants and some happy resultstherefrom, [491]. Geographic outlines of the kingdom of Germany, [494]. The transitionfrom feudalism to monarchy, [494]. Progress in Germany, [495]. Influence of gunpowder,[497]. Monarchism in Italy, [497]. In France, [498]. In England, [499]. Thepapacy and feudalism, [500]. Hegel on the rise of mankind through feudalism, [500].
[Brief Reference-List of Authorities by Chapters][502]
[BOOK II. THE PAPACY]
[History in Outline of the Papacy (42-1878 A.D.)][503]
CHAPTER I
[Origin and Rise of the Papacy (42-842 A.D.)][519]
The papacy in connection with the Frankish Empire, [524]. Gregory the Great,[531]. Christian mythology, [534]. Worship of the Virgin, [535]. Angels and devils,[536]. Martyrs and relics, [536]. Sanctity of the clergy, [537]. State after death, [538].Gregory’s successors, [539]. Draper on the origin of iconoclasm, [544]. Milman oniconoclasm, [545]. The war of iconoclasm, [546]. Constantine Copronymus, [548].Third Council of Constantinople, [549]. The war on monasteries, [550]. Helena andIrene, [552]. Second Council of Nicæa, [552].
CHAPTER II
[“The Night of the Papacy”—Charlemagne to Otto the Great (740-985 A.D.)][555]
Independence of the Roman bishops, [556]. The appeal to the Franks, [556].Charlemagne and the pope, [558]. The donation from Constantine, [559]. Charlemagne’sthird and fourth entrances into Italy, [561]. The realm of the popes, [562].The trial of the pope and the crowning of Charlemagne, [563]. Papal ambition afterCharlemagne, [565]. The myth of the woman pope, [567]. Rivalry of Nicholas andPhotius, [569]. Synod at Constantinople, [570]. The false decretals, [571]. Adrian II,[574]. Pope Formosus, [577]. Theodora in power, [579]. The infamous Marozia, [581].Rebellion of Rome, [582]. Pope John XII, [583]. Trial of the pope, [583]. CharlesKingsley on temporal power, [587].
CHAPTER III
[The High Noon of the Papacy (985-1305 A.D.)][589]
The dream of Otto III, [590]. The German popes, [591]. The college of cardinals,[592]. Milman on the mission of the papacy, [593]. Simony, [596]. Celibacy of theclergy, [596]. Gregory’s synod at Rome, [597]. Bryce on the consequences of the Concordat,[602]. Rival claimants, [602]. Adrian IV versus Barbarossa, [603]. Adrian’sfirmness, [605]. Two rival popes, [606]. Innocent III, [607]. The influence of thecrusades on papal power, [608]. The autocracy of Innocent III, [610]. Universal swayof the pope, [611]. Milman’s estimate of Innocent III, [612]. Frederick II at war withthe papacy, [614]. Council at Lyons, [616]. Accession of Boniface VIII, [618]. Philip theFair overpowers the papacy, [618]. Hallam on the climax of papal power, [620].
CHAPTER IV
[From Exile to Supremacy (1305-1513 A.D.)][623]
Clement V, [624]. The fate of the Templars, [625]. John XXII to Urban V, [626].The Great Schism of the West, [630]. Relation of the national churches to the state, [632].Moral condition of the clergy, [633]. The great councils of Pisa and Constance; JohnHuss, [634]. Milman on Nicholas V and the fall of Constantinople, [640]. Popes to1503, [642]. Alexander VI, the Borgia, [644]. Estimates of Alexander VI, [645]. JuliusII, [647]. Prevalence of secularism in the Church, [648].
[Brief Reference-List of Authorities by Chapters][651]

PART XII

THE HISTORY OF PARTHIANS,
SASSANIDS, AND ARABS

BASED CHIEFLY UPON THE FOLLOWING AUTHORITIES

ABDUL-LATIF, ABUL-FARAJ, ABULFEDA, MAX DUNCKER, I. GOLDZIHER,
A. VON GUTSCHMID, WILLIAM MUIR, TH. NÖLDEKE, L. A.
SÉDILLOT, L. VIARDOT, JULIUS WELLHAUSEN,
GUSTAV WEIL

TOGETHER WITH

A CHARACTERISATION OF THE SCOPE AND INFLUENCE
OF ARABIC HISTORY

BY