The only words of undoubtedly Norse element that occur in the present poem, and were unknown to Southern English, are—fro (from), ille (bad), for-sweðen (to burn), flitten (to remove), laðe (barn), lowe (flame), mirk (dark), ransaken (to search), swaðe (flame), til (to), uglike (horrible), werre (worse).[[47]]
The Ormulum, being more Northern, contains a larger number of words that must be referred to one of the Scandinavian idioms:[[48]]—afell (strength), afledd (begotten), beȝȝsc (bitter), *blunnt (blunt, dull), bracc (noise), *braþ (angry), *braþþe (anger), *brodd (shoot), brodden (to sprout), broþþfall (fit), *bun (ready, bound), *clake (accusation), *croc (device), *derf (bold), *dill (sluggish), *eggenn (to urge, egg on), *egginng (urging), *ettle, *flittenn (to remove, flit), *flitting (change, removal), *forrgart (opposed, condemned), *forrgloppned (disturbed with fear, astonishment), *gate (way), gowesst (watchest), *haȝherr (dexterous), haȝherleȝȝc (skill), *haȝherrlike (fitly), hof (moderation), hofelæs (immoderately), *ille (bad), *immess (variously), *kinndlenn (to kindle), *lasst (crime, fault), leȝhe (hire, pay), *leȝȝtenn (O.E. layte, inquire, seek), o-loft (aloft), *loȝhe (fire), *mune (must, will), naþe (grace), nowwt (cattle, O.N. naut; the Southern form is neet, nete, A.S. neát), *ploh (plough), *radd (afraid), *ros (praise), *rosen (to boast), *rosinng (boast), rowwst (voice), *scaldess (poets, O.E. scald, a great talker, boaster, E. scold), *sit (pain), *sket (quickly), *skirpeþþ (rejecteth), *sloþ (track, path), smikerr (beautiful, Eng. smug), sowwþess (sheep), stoffnedd (generated, O.E. stoven, trunk, stem), *summ (as), *till (to), *tór (hard, difficult), *trigg (true), uppbrixle (object of reproach, O.E. brixle, reproach), usell (wretched), *wand (rod), *wandraþ, O.E. wandreth (trouble), *werre (worse).
As most, if not all, of the words in the foregoing list are not found in works written in the Southern dialect,—so far as we at present know them—we may reasonably suppose that they indicate fairly the Danish element in the English literature of the 12th and 13th centuries. In the Northumbrian, and the West, and East-Midland productions of a century later this element prevails to a much larger extent, and Herbert Coleridge's list of such words may be largely increased (Phil. Soc. Trans., 1859, p. 26-30).
GRAMMATICAL DETAILS.
I. Nouns.
1. Number.—The plural is generally formed by adding -es to the singular. Some few nouns make the plural in -en, as feren[[49]] (companions), fon (foes), goren (spears), loten (features), sunen (sons), teten (teats), tren (trees), weden (garments), wunen (laws). The plurals of brother and child are brethere and childere. Der (deer), erf, orf (cattle), got (goat), neat (oxen), sep (sheep), scrud (garbs), wrim (reptiles), of the neuter gender, are uninflected in the plural. Winter, ger (year), and nigt (night), are plural as in Anglo-Saxon.
2. Gender.—As a general rule the names of inanimate things are of the neuter gender. The names of towns, however, are considered as masculine.
3. Case.—The genitive singular and plural of masculine and feminine nouns end in -es. Occasionally proper nouns form the genitive in -is. The means or instrument occasionally stands in the genitive without the preposition: 'deades driuen,' influenced by death; 'swerdes slagen,' slain of the sword; 'teres wet,' wet with tears. Cf. 'floures bred,' bread made with flour; 'bredes mel,' meal consisting of bread; 'wines drinc,' drink consisting of wine.
Corresponding to the modern word kinsmen we have such forms as 'daiges-ligt' (daylight), 'hines-folk' (servants), 'wifeskin' (women). The genitive is used adverbially, as newes, anew; liues, alive.
We have a few traces of the genitive in -e in the following examples: 'helle nigt,' l. [89] (hell's night); 'helle bale,' l. [2525] (hell's bale); 'sterre name,' l. [134] (star's name); 'safte same,' l. [349] (shame of form); 'werlde nigt,' l. [1318] (world's night).[[50]]