(C. H.)

BRUNEL, ISAMBARD KINGDOM (1806-1859), English engineer, only son of Sir M.I. Brunel, was born at Portsmouth on the 9th of April 1806. He displayed in childhood singular powers of mental calculation, great skill and rapidity as a draughtsman, and a true feeling for art. At the age of fourteen he was sent to Paris, to study at the Collège Henri Quatre. In 1823 he entered his father's office as assistant-engineer, just at the time when the project of the Thames Tunnel was beginning to take shape; and during the later portion of the time, from 1825, when the work was begun, till 1828, when it was stopped by an irruption of the river, he was both nominal and actual resident engineer. In November 1829 he sent in designs and plans for the projected suspension bridge over the Avon at Clifton, but in consequence of objections raised by Thomas Telford, the referee of the bridge committee, his plans were rejected. But a new design which he sent in on a second competition in 1831 was accepted, and he was appointed engineer. The works were begun in 1836, but owing to lack of funds were not completed until 1864, after Brunel's death; his design, however, was closely adhered to, and the chains employed came from the old Hungerford suspension bridge (London), which he had built in 1841-1845, but which was displaced in 1862 by the Charing Cross railway bridge.

In March 1833 Brunel, at the age of twenty-seven, was appointed engineer of the newly-projected Great Western railway. For several years his energies were taxed to the utmost by the conflict with obstructive landowners and short-sighted critics; but he showed himself equal to the occasion, not only as a professional man, but as a persuasive negotiator. Among the engineering triumphs on that railway are the Hanwell viaduct, the Maidenhead bridge and the Box tunnel, at the time the longest in the world. The famous "battle of the gauges" took its rise from his introduction of the broad (7 ft.) gauge on that line. In 1846 he resigned his office as engineer of the Great Western railway. In 1844 he had recommended the adoption of the atmospheric system on the South Devon railway, but after a year's trial the system was abandoned. The last and greatest of Brunel's railway works was the Royal Albert bridge over the river Tamar at Saltash. This work, sanctioned by parliament in 1845, was constructed between 1853 and 1859.

In addition to the arduous labours of railway engineering Brunel took a leading part in the systematic development of ocean steam navigation. As early as October 1835 he had suggested to the directors of the Great Western railway, that they should "make it longer, and have a steamboat to go from Bristol to New York, and call it the 'Great Western.'" The project was taken up, and the "Great Western" steamship was designed by Brunel, and built at Bristol under his superintendence. It was much longer than any steamer of the day, and was the first steamship built to make regular voyages across the Atlantic. While the vessel was building a controversy was raised about the practicability of Brunel's scheme, Dr D. Lardner asserting dogmatically that the voyage could not be made, and backing his assertion with an array of figures. His view was widely accepted, but the work went on, and the voyage was accomplished in 1838. Brunel at once undertook a still larger design in the "Great Britain," which was the first large iron steamship, the largest ship afloat at that time, and the first large ship in which the screw-propeller was used. She made her first voyage from Liverpool to New York in August and September 1845; but in the following year was carelessly run upon the rocks in Dundrum Bay on the coast of Ireland. After lying there nearly a year without material damage she was got off and was employed in the Australian trade. Brunel soon after began to meditate a still vaster project, the construction of a vessel large enough to carry all the coal required for a long voyage out, and if coal could not be had at the out port, then to carry enough also for the return voyage. It seemed to him, further, that a great increase of size would give many advantages for navigation. During his connexion as engineer with the Australian Mail Company he worked out into a practical shape his conception of a "great ship"; and in 1852 his scheme was laid before the directors of the Eastern Steam Navigation Company. It was adopted, the projector being appointed engineer, and after much time occupied about contracts and specifications the work was begun in December 1853. Immense difficulties in the progress of construction caused delays from time to time. The operation of launching was several times attempted in vain; but at length the gigantic vessel, the "Great Eastern," was got afloat on the 31st of January 1858. Much remained to be done to complete the ship; and her engineer, overworked and worn out with worry, broke down and did not see her begin her first voyage on the 7th of September 1859. On the 5th he was brought home from the ship suffering from a paralytic stroke, and on the 15th he died at his house in Westminster.

In addition to the great works already described, Brunel was employed in the construction of many docks and piers, as at Monkwearmouth, Bristol, Plymouth, Briton Ferry, Brentford and Milford Haven. He was a zealous promoter of the Great Exhibition of 1851, and was a member of the committee on the section of machinery and of the building committee. He paid much attention to the improvement of large guns, and designed a floating gun-carriage for the attack on Kronstadt in the Russian War (1854); he also designed and superintended the construction of the hospital buildings at Erenkeni on the Dardanelles (1855). He was elected a fellow of the Royal Society in 1830, and in 1858 declined the presidency of the Institution of Civil Engineers through ill-health. He received the degree of D.C.L. from Oxford in 1857. In his work he was singularly free from professional jealousy, and was always ready to commend and help others, though, himself a man of remarkable industry and energy, he demanded a high standard of faithful service from his subordinates.

See The Life of I.K. Brunel, C.E. (1870), by his son, Isambard Brunel.

BRUNEL, SIR MARC ISAMBARD (1769-1849), British inventor and engineer, was born at Hacqueville in Normandy on the 25th of April 1769. His father, a small landowner and farmer, intended him for the church, but his taste for mathematics and mechanics inclined him to another career, and he obtained a nomination for the navy, in which he served for six years. When his ship was paid off in 1792 and he returned to France, he found the Revolution at its height, and owing to his pronounced royalist opinions he was obliged to leave the country. Reaching New York in September 1793 he began to practise as an architect and civil engineer. His first employment was in land-surveying and canal-engineering. Later he submitted a highly ornamental design for the National Capitol at Washington, which, however, was not accepted, and was engaged to design and superintend the construction of the Bowery theatre, New York, burnt down in 1821. He fitted novel and ingenious machinery in the arsenal and cannon factory which he was commissioned to erect in New York, and he was asked to supply plans for the defences of the Narrows between the upper and lower bays of that port. Early in 1799 he sailed for England in order to submit to the British government his plans for the mechanical production of ships' blocks, in substitution for the manual processes then employed. After the usual difficulties and delays his proposals were adopted, largely through the recommendation of Sir Samuel Bentham, and about 1803 the erection of his machines was begun at Portsmouth dockyard. They were constructed by Henry Maudslay, and formed one of the earliest examples of a complete range of machine tools, each

performing its part in a long series of operations. Not only was the quality of the product much improved but the cost was greatly diminished, and the saving effected in the first year in which the machines were in full work was estimated at £24,000, of which about two-thirds was awarded to Brunel. A little later he was occupied in devising improved machines for sawing and bending timber, and in 1811 and 1812 he was employed by the government in erecting saw-mills at Woolwich and Chatham, carrying out at the latter dockyard a complete reorganization of the system for handling timber. About 1812 he devised machinery for making boots which was adopted for the purposes of the army, but abandoned a few years later when, owing to the cessation of war, the demand became less and the supply of manual labour cheaper. At the same time he interested himself in the establishment of steam navigation on the Thames between London and Ramsgate. In 1814 he succeeded in persuading the admiralty to try steam-tugs for towing warships out to sea. The experiments were made at his own expense, for a few months after undertaking to contribute to the cost the admiralty revoked its promise on the ground that the attempt was "too chimerical to be seriously entertained." Another vain enterprise on which he wasted much time and money was an attempt to use liquefied gases as a source of motive power. His round stocking-frame or tricoteur was patented in 1816, and among his other inventions were machines for winding cotton-thread into balls, for copying drawings, for making small wooden boxes such as are used by druggists, and for the manufacture of nails, together with processes of preparing tinfoil for decorative purposes and improvements in stereotype plates for printing.

In 1821, partly as the result of the damage done by fire in 1814 to the saw-mills he owned at Battersea, and partly because his commercial abilities were far from equal to his mechanical genius, he got into financial difficulties and was thrown into prison for debt, only regaining his freedom through a grant of £5000 which his friends obtained for him from the government. Subsequently his attention was mainly devoted to projects of civil engineering, the most noteworthy being the Thames Tunnel. In 1820 he had prepared plans of bridges for erection in Rouen and St Petersburg and in the island of Bourbon. In 1823 he designed swing-bridges, and in 1826 floating landing-stages, for the port of Liverpool. A company, which was supported by the duke of Wellington, was formed in 1824 to carry out his scheme for boring a tunnel under the Thames between Wapping and Rotherhithe. The work was begun at the beginning of 1825, the excavation being accomplished by the aid of a "shield," which he had patented in 1818. Many difficulties were encountered. The river broke through the roof of the tunnel in 1827, and after a second irruption in 1828 work was discontinued for lack of funds. Seven years later it was resumed with the aid of money advanced by the government, and after three more irruptions the tunnel was completed and opened in 1843. Aided by his son, Brunel displayed extraordinary skill and resource in the various emergencies with which he had to deal, but the anxiety broke down his health. He recovered sufficiently from one paralytic stroke to attend the opening ceremony, but he was able to undertake little more professional work. A second stroke followed in 1845, and four years later he died in London on the 12th of December 1849. He received the order of the Legion of Honour in 1829 and was knighted in 1841.

See Richard Beamish, Memoirs of Sir Marc Isambard Brunel (1862).