ψ′(y) = pψ′1(y) + q,
the connectivity consisting in that case, geometrically, of a curve in space taken with ∞¹ of its tangent planes; or, finally, a connectivity is constituted by a fixed point and all the planes passing through that point. This generalized view of the meaning of a solution of F = 0 is of advantage, moreover, in view of anomalies otherwise arising from special forms of the equation Meaning of a solution of the equation. itself. For instance, we may include the case, sometimes arising when the equation to be solved is obtained by transformation from another equation, in which F does not contain either p or q. Then the equation has ∞² solutions, each consisting of an arbitrary point of the surface F = 0 and all the ∞² planes passing through this point; it also has ∞² solutions, each consisting of a curve drawn on the surface F = 0 and all the tangent planes of this curve, the whole consisting of ∞² elements; finally, it has also an isolated (or singular) solution consisting of the points of the surface, each associated with the tangent plane of the surface thereat, also ∞² elements in all. Or again, a linear equation F = Pp + Qq − R = 0, wherein P, Q, R are functions of x, y, z only, has ∞² solutions, each consisting of one of the curves defined by
dx/P = dy/Q = dz/R
taken with all the tangent planes of this curve; and the same equation has ∞² solutions, each consisting of the points of a surface containing ∞¹ of these curves and the tangent planes of this surface. And for the case of n variables there is similarly the possibility of n + 1 kinds of solution of an equation F(x1, ... xn, z, p1, ... pn) = 0; these can, however, by a simple contact transformation be reduced to one kind, in which there is only one relation z′ = ψ(x′1, ... x′n) connecting the new variables x’1, ... x′n, z′ (see under [Pfaffian Expressions]); just as in the case of the solution
z = ψ(y), x = ψ1(y), ψ′(y) = pψ′1(y) + q
of the equation Pp + Qq = R the transformation z’ = z − px, x′ = p, p′ = −x, y′ = y, q′ = q gives the solution
z′ = ψ(y′) + x′ψ1(y′), p′ = dz′/dx′, q′ = dz′/dy′
of the transformed equation. These explanations take no account of the possibility of p and q being infinite; this can be dealt with by writing p = -u/w, q = -v/w, and considering homogeneous equations in u, v, w, with udx + vdy + wdz = 0 as the differential relation necessary for a connectivity; in practice we use the ideas associated with such a procedure more often without the appropriate notation.
In utilizing these general notions we shall first consider the theory of characteristic chains, initiated by Cauchy, which shows well the nature of the relations implied by the given differential equation; the alternative ways of carrying Order of the ideas. out the necessary integrations are suggested by considering the method of Jacobi and Mayer, while a good summary is obtained by the formulation in terms of a Pfaffian expression.
Consider a solution of F = 0 expressed by the three independent equations F = 0, G = 0, H = 0. If it be a solution in which there is more than one relation connecting x, y, z, let new variables x′, y′, z′, p′, q′ be introduced, as before explained under [Pfaffian Expressions], Characteristic chains. in which z’ is of the form