The principles of harmony belong to the subject of music (see [Harmony]), but it is necessary here briefly to refer to these from the physiological point of view. If two musical sounds reach the ear at the same moment, an agreeable or disagreeable sensation is experienced, which may be termed a concord or a discord, and it can be shown by experiment with the syren that this depends upon the vibrational numbers of the two tones. The octave (1 : 2), the twelfth (1 : 3) and double octave (1 : 4) are absolutely consonant sounds; the fifth (2 : 3) is said to be perfectly consonant; then follow, in the direction of dissonance, the fourth (3 : 4), major sixth (3 : 5), major third (4 : 5), minor sixth (5 : 8) and the minor third (5 : 6). Helmholtz has attempted to account for this by the application of his theory of beats.
Beats are observed when two sounds of nearly the same pitch are produced together, and the number of beats per second is equal to the difference of the number of vibrations of the two sounds. Beats give rise to a peculiarly disagreeable intermittent sensation. The maximum roughness of beats is attained by 33 per second; beyond 132 per second, the individual impulses are blended into one uniform auditory sensation. When two notes are sounded, say on a piano, not only may the first, fundamental or prime tones beat, but partial tones of each of the primaries may beat also, and as the difference of pitch of two simultaneous sounds augments, the number of beats, both of prime tones and of harmonics, augments also. The physiological effect of beats, though these may not be individually distinguishable, is to give roughness to the ear. If harmonics or partial tones of prime tones coincide, there are no beats; if they do not coincide, the beats produced will give a character of roughness to the interval. Thus in the octave and twelfth, all the partial tones of the acute sound coincide with the partial tones of the grave sound; in the fourth, major sixth and major third, only two pairs of the partial tones coincide, while in the minor sixth, minor third and minor seventh only one pair of the harmonics coincide.
It is possible by means of beats to measure the sensitiveness of the ear by determining the smallest difference in pitch that may give rise to a beat. In no part of the scale can a difference smaller than 0.2 vibration per second be distinguished. The sensitiveness varies with pitch. Thus at 120 vibs. per second 0.4 vib. per second, at 500 about 0.3 vib. per second, and at 1000, 0.5 vib. per second can be distinguished. This is a remarkable illustration of the sensitiveness of the ear. When tones of low pitch are produced that do not rapidly die away, as by sounding heavy tuning-forks, not only may the beats be perceived corresponding to the difference between the frequencies of the forks, but also other sets of beats. Thus, if the two tones have frequencies of 40 and 74, a two-order beat may be heard, one having a frequency of 34 and the other of 6, as 74 ÷ 40 = 1 + a positive remainder of 34, and 74 ÷ 40 = 2 − 6, or 80 − 74, a negative remainder of 6. The lower beat is heard most distinctly when the number is less than half the frequency of the lower primary, and the upper when the number is greater. The beats we have been considering are produced when two notes are sounded slightly differing in frequency, or at all events their frequencies are not so great as those of two notes separated by a musical interval, such as an octave or a fifth. But Lord Kelvin has shown that beats may also be produced on slightly inharmonious musical intervals (Proc. Roy. Soc. Ed. 1878, vol. ix. p. 602). Thus, take two tuning-forks, ut2 = 256 and ut3 = 512; slightly flatten ut3 so as to make its frequency 510, and we hear, not a roughness corresponding to 254 beats, but a slow beat of 2 per second. The sensation also passes through a cycle, the beats now sounding loudly and fading away in intensity, again sounding loudly, and so on. One might suppose that the beat occurred between 510 (the frequency of ut3 flattened) and 512, the first partial of ut2, namely ut3, but this is not so, as the beat is most audible when ut2 is sounded feebly. In a similar way, beats may be produced on the approximate harmonies 2 : 3, 3 : 4, 4 : 5, 5 : 6, 6 : 7, 7 : 8, 1 : 3, 3 : 5, and beats may even be produced on the major chord 4 : 5 : 6 by sounding ut3, mi3, sol3, with sol3 or mi3 slightly flattened, “when a peculiar beat will be heard as if a wheel were being turned against a surface, one small part of which was rougher than the rest.” These beats on imperfect harmonies appear to indicate that the ear does distinguish between an increase of pressure on the drum-head and a diminution, or between a push and a pull, or, in other words, that it is affected by phase. This was denied by Helmholtz.
10. Beat Tones.—Considerable difference of opinion exists as to whether beats can blend so as to give a sensation of tone; but R. König, by using pure tones of high pitch, has settled the question. These tones were produced by large tuning-forks. Thus ut6 = 2048 and re6 = 2304. Then the beat tone is ut3 = 256 (2304-2048). If we strike the two forks, ut3 sounds as a grave or lower beat tone. Again, ut6 = 2048 and si6 = 3840. Then (2048)2 − 3840 = 256, a negative remainder, ut3, as before, and when both forks are sounded ut3 will be heard. Again, ut6 = 2048 and sol6 = 3072, and 3072 − 2048 = 1024, or ut6, which will be distinctly heard when ut6 and sol6 are sounded (König, Quelques expériences d’acoustique, Paris, 1882, p. 87).
11. Combination Tones.—Frequently, when two tones are sounded, not only do we hear the compound sound, from which we can pick out the constituent tones, but we may hear other tones, one of which is lower in pitch than the lowest primary, and the other is higher in pitch than the higher primary. These, known as combination tones, are of two classes: differential tones, in which the frequency is the difference of the frequencies of the generating tones, and summational tones, having a frequency which is the sum of the frequencies of the tones producing them. Differential tones, first noticed by Sorge about 1740, are easily heard. Thus an interval of a fifth, 2 : 3, gives a differential tone 1, that is, an octave below 2; a fourth, 3 : 4, gives 1, a twelfth below 3; a major third, 4 : 5, gives 1, two octaves below 4; a minor third, 5 : 6, gives 1, two octaves and a major third below 5; a major sixth, 3 : 5, gives 2, that is, a fifth below 3; and a minor sixth, 5 : 8, gives 3, that is, a major sixth below 5. Summational tones, first noticed by Helmholtz, are so difficult to hear that much controversy has taken place as to their very existence. Some have contended that they are produced by beats. It appears to be proved physically that they may exist in the air outside of the ear. Further differential tones may be generated in the middle ear. Helmholtz also demonstrated their independent existence, and he states that “whenever the vibrations of the air or of other elastic bodies, which are set in motion at the same time by two generating simple tones, are so powerful that they can no longer be considered infinitely small, mathematical theory shows that vibrations of the air must arise which have the same vibrational numbers as the combination tones” (Helmholtz, Sensations of Tone, p. 235). The importance of these combinational tones in the theory of hearing is obvious. If the ear can only analyse compound waves into simple pendular vibrations of a certain order (simple multiples of the prime tone), how can it detect combinational tones, which do not belong to that order? Again, if such tones are purely subjective and only exist in the mind of the listener, the fact would be fatal to the resonance theory. There can be no doubt, however, that the ear, in dealing with them, vibrates in some part of its mechanism with each generator, while it also is affected by the combinational tone itself, according to its frequency.
12. Hearing with two ears does not appear materially to influence auditive sensation, but probably the two organs are enabled, not only to correct each other’s errors, but also to aid us in determining the locality in which a sound originates. It is asserted by G. T. Fechner that one ear may perceive the same tone at a slightly higher pitch than the other, but this may probably be due to some slight pathological condition in one ear. If two tones, produced by two tuning-forks, of equal pitch, are produced one near each ear, there is a uniform single sensation; if one of the tuning-forks be made to revolve round its axis in such a way that its tone increases and diminishes in intensity, neither fork is heard continuously, but both sound alternately, the fixed one being only audible when the revolving one is not. It is difficult to decide whether excitations of corresponding elements in the two ears can be distinguished from each other. It is probable that the resulting sensations may be distinguished, provided one of the generating tones differs from the other in intensity or quality, although it may be the same in pitch. Our judgment as to the direction of sounds is formed mainly from the different degrees of intensity with which they are heard by two ears. Lord Rayleigh states that diffraction of the sound-waves will occur as they pass round the head to the ear farthest from the source of sound; thus partial tones will reach the two ears with different intensities, and thus quality of tone may be affected (Trans. Music. Soc., London, 1876). Silvanus P. Thompson advocates a similar view, and he shows that the direction of a complex tone can be more accurately determined than the direction of a simple tone, especially if it be of low pitch (Phil. Mag., 1882).
(J. G. M.)
HEARN, LAFCADIO (1850-1904), author of books about Japan, was born on the 27th of June 1850 in Leucadia (pronounced Lefcadia, whence his name, which was one adopted by himself), one of the Greek Ionian Islands. He was the son of Surgeon-major Charles Hearn, of King’s County, Ireland, who, during the English occupation of the Ionian Islands, was stationed there, and who married a Greek wife. Artistic and rather bohemian tastes were in Lafcadio Hearn’s blood. His father’s brother Richard was at one time a well-known member of the Barbizon set of artists, though he made no mark as a painter through his lack of energy. Young Hearn had rather a casual education, but was for a time (1865) at Ushaw Roman Catholic College, Durham. The religious faith in which he was brought up was, however, soon lost; and at nineteen, being thrown on his own resources, he went to America and at first picked up a living in the lower grades of newspaper work. The details are obscure, but he continued to occupy himself with journalism and with out-of-the-way observation and reading, and meanwhile his erratic, romantic and rather morbid idiosyncrasies developed. He was for some time in New Orleans, writing for the Times Democrat, and was sent by that paper for two years as correspondent to the West Indies, where he gathered material for his Two Years in the French West Indies (1890). At last, in 1891, he went to Japan with a commission as a newspaper correspondent, which was quickly broken off. But here he found his true sphere. The list of his books on Japanese subjects tells its own tale: Glimpses of Unfamiliar Japan (1894); Out of the East (1895); Kokoro (1896); Gleanings in Buddha Fields (1897); Exotics and Retrospections (1898); In Ghostly Japan (1899); Shadowings (1900); A Japanese Miscellany (1901); Kotto (1902); Japanese Fairy Tales and Kwaidan (1903), and (published just after his death) Japan, an Attempt at Interpretation (1904), a study full of knowledge and insight. He became a teacher of English at the University of Tokyo, and soon fell completely under the spell of Japanese ideas. He married a Japanese wife, became a naturalized Japanese under the name of Yakumo Koizumi, and adopted the Buddhist religion. For the last two years of his life (he died on the 26th of September 1904) his health was failing, and he was deprived of his lecturersbip at the University. But he had gradually become known to the world at large by the originality, power and literary charm of his writings. This wayward bohemian genius, who had seen life in so many climes, and turned from Roman Catholic to atheist and then to Buddhist, was curiously qualified, among all those who were “interpreting” the new and the old Japan to the Western world, to see it with unfettered understanding, and to express its life and thought with most intimate and most artistic sincerity. Lafcadio Hearn’s books were indeed unique for their day in the literature about Japan, in their combination of real knowledge with a literary art which is often exquisite.