“The contracting powers agree not to have recourse to armed force for the recovery of contract debts claimed from the government of one country by the government of another country as being due to its subjects or citizens. This undertaking is, however, not applicable when the debtor state refuses or neglects to reply to an offer of arbitration, or, after accepting the offer, renders the settlement of the Compromis impossible, or, after the arbitration, fails to comply with the award” (Art. 1).
The codification of International Law itself, begun at the Hague and London Conferences, is an admission of the binding character of the primary principles set out above.
One of the chief tendencies of contemporary reform is also to restrict the effect of fictions and reduce rights to the limits of their practical application. Between two alternatives, the one to assert rights which cannot possibly be Restriction of effect of fictions. maintained by force such as claims to dominion over portions of the high sea (see [High Sea], [Territorial Waters]), “paper blockades” (see [Blockade]) and fictitious occupations of territory (see [Occupation]), and the other to require actual physical assertion, a medium course is growing up, viz. that of recognizing potential assertion, that is assertion limited to physical possibilities.[16] With the aid of the Institute o£ International Law, the International Law Association and other reforming agencies (see [Peace]), expert opinion in these matters is becoming homogeneous throughout the civilized world, and the ground is being prepared for a clearer understanding of these fundamental principles by the statesmen and state officials who have to apply them in practice.
Bibliography.—The following are works on international law, diplomacy and treaty relations, from the beginning of the 19th century until 1910. Many of the older authors have been omitted to permit the inclusion of more recent writers.
Alcorta, Tratado de derecho internacional (Buenos Aires, 1878); D. Anzilotti, Teoria generale della responsabilità dello Stato nel diritto internazionale (Florence, 1902); Arendt, Le Droit public et la neutralité de la Belgique (Brussels, 1845); Nagao Ariga, La Guerre russo-japonaise, au point de vue continental et le droit international (Paris, 1908), La Guerre sino-japonaise au point de vue du droit international (Paris, 1896); Sir Sherston Baker, First Steps in International Law (London, 1899); Barboux, Jurisprudence du conseil des prises pendant la guerre franco-allemande (1872); Sir T. Barclay, Problems of International Practice and Diplomacy (London, 1907); T. Baty, International Law (London, 1909); Bello, Principios de derecho internacional, 2nd ed. by Silva (Madrid, 1884); Norman Bentwich, The Law of Private Property in War with a Chapter on Conquest (London, 1907); Bergbohm, Staats-Verträge und-Gesetze als Quellen des Völkerrechts (Leipzig, 1877); T. M. Bernard, Four Lectures on Subjects connected with Diplomacy (London, 1868); Bluntschli, Das moderne Völkerrecht der civilisirten Staaten als Rechtsbuch dargestellt (Nördlingen, 1868), trans. into French by Lardy (Le Droit international codifié) (Paris, 2nd ed., 1874), Die Bedeutung und die Fortschritte des modernen Völkerrechts (2nd ed., Berlin, 1873); De Boeck, Le Droit de la propriété ennemie privée sous pavillon ennemi (Paris, 1882); Henri Bonfils, Manuel de droit international public (1894, 4th ed., by Fauchille, 1904); Percy Bordwell, The Law of War between Belligerents—a History and Commentary (Chicago, 1908); Bornemann, Forelaesninger over den positive folkeret (Copenhagen, 1866); Brusa, Del modierno diritto internazionale pubblico (Florence, 1876); De Burgh, Elements of Maritime International Law (London, 1868); Aug. von Bulmerincq, Praxis, Theorie und Codification des Völkerrechts (Leipzig, 1874), Das Völkerrecht (1887); Montagu Burrows, History of the Foreign Policy of Great Britain (London, 1897); Charles Henry Butler, The Treaty-making Power of the United States (2 vols., New York, 1902); Carlos Calvo, Le Droit international (5th ed., 6 vols., Paris, 1896); Cauchy, Le Droit maritime international considéré dans ses origines et ses rapports avec les progrès de la civilisation (2 vols., Paris, 1862), Du respect de la propriété privée dans la guerre maritime (Paris, 1866); Carnazza-Amari, Trattato di diritto internazionale de pace (2 vols., 1867-1875); Pitt Cobbett, Cases and Opinions on International Law and various points of English Law connected therewith (London, 1st ed. 1885, 2nd ed. 1892, 3rd ed. 1909) (part I, “Peace”); Miguel Cruchaga, Nociones de derecho internacional (1899, 2nd ed. 1902); Cogordan, La Nationalité au point de vue des rapports internationaux (Paris, 1879); de Courcy, Réforme internationale du droit maritime (Paris, 1863); R. T. Crane, State in Constitutional and International Law (1907); Creasy, First Platform of International Law (London, 1876); G. B. Davis, Outlines of International Law, with an Account of its origin and sources, and of its historical development (New York, 1887); Elements of International Law, with an account of its origin, sources and historical development (new and revised edition, New York and London, 1900); de Clercq, Recueil des traités, conventions et actes diplomatiques conclus par la France avec les puissances étrangères, publiés sous les auspices du min. des aff. étrangères (Paris, 21 vols.); Descamps, L’Évolution de la neutralité en droit international (Brussels, 1898); F. Despagnet, Cours de droit international public (2nd ed., Paris, 1899), La Diplomatie de la Troisième République et le droit des gens (Paris, 1904); Professor Giulio Diena, Principi di diritto internazionale (Naples, 1908); Dufraisse, Histoire du droit de guerre et de paix (Paris, 1867); Jacques Dumas, Les Sanctions de l’arbitrage international (Paris, 1905); E. Duplessix, La Loi des nations, projet de code de droit international public (Paris, 1906); L’Organisation internationale (Paris, 1909); Charles Dupuis, Les Tarifs douaniers et les traités de commerce (Paris, 1895); Le Principe d’équilibre et le concert européen de la paix de Westphalie à l’acte d’Algesiras (Paris, 1909); Eden, Law of Nature and of Nations, Policy of Europe (London, 1823); Ed. Engelhardt. Du régime conventionnel des fleuves internationaux (Paris, 1879); Paul Errera, Das Staatsrecht des Königsreichs Belgien (Tübingen, 1909); T. H. S. Escott, The Story of British Diplomacy; Its Makers and Movements (London, 1908); Fauchille, La Diplomatie française et la ligue des neutres de 1780 (1776-1783) (Paris, 1893); Du blocus maritime (Paris, 1882); Ferguson, A Manual of International Law (2 vols., London, 1884); David Dudley Field, Outlines of an International Code (New York and London, 2nd ed., 1876); Fiore, Trattado di diritto internazionale pubblico (3rd ed., Turin, 1888), Nouveau Droit international public (3 vols., Paris, 1885); Le Droit international codifié et sa sanction juridique—traduit de l’italien par A. Chrétien (Paris, 1889); Funck-Brentano et Sorel, Précis du droit des gens (Paris, 1877, new ed. 1894); Fusinato, Il Principio della scuola italiana nel diritto internazional pubblico (Macerata, 1884); François Gairal, Le Protectorat international (Paris, 1896); E. M. Gallaudet, International Law (New York, 1886); Guillaume de Garden, Histoire générale des traités de paix, et autres transactions principales, entre toutes les puissances de l’Europe depuis la paix de Westphalie (14 vols., Paris, 1848-1859); Gareis, Institutionen des Völkerrechts (1888, 2nd ed., 1901); L. Gessner, Zur Reform des Kriegseerechts (Berlin, 1875), Le Droit des neutres sur mer (2nd ed., Berlin, 1876), Guelle, Droit international. La guerre continentale et les personnes (Paris, 1879); Guéronnière, Le Droit public de l’Europe moderne (Paris, 1876); Guesalaga, Derecho diplomatico y consular (Buenos Aires, 1900); Hagerup, “La Neutralité permanente” (Revue générale du droit international public) (Paris, 1905); W. E. Hall, A Treatise on International Law (6th ed., edited by J. B. Atlay, Oxford, 1909); Foreign Powers and Jurisdiction of the British Crown (London, 1894); H. W. Halleck, International Law (Philadelphia, 1866, edit. by Sir Sherston Baker, 4th ed., 2 vols., London 1908); A. B. Hart, Foundations of American Foreign Policy (New York, 1901); Hartmann, Institutionen des praktischen Völkerrechts in Friedenszeiten (1887); L. B. Hautefeuille, Quelques questions de droit international maritime à propos de la guerre d’Amérique (Leipzig and Paris, 1861); Droits et devoirs des nations neutres (3 vols., 3rd ed., Paris, 1868); Questions de droit maritime international (Paris, 1868); Histoire des origines, des progrès et des variations du droit maritime international (Paris, 1858, 2nd ed. 1869); Heffter, Das europäische Völkerrecht der Gegenwart (Berlin, 1855, trans. into French by Bergson, Le Droit international de l’Europe, 4th ed., enlarged and annotated by Geffcken, Berlin and Paris, 1883); Amos E. 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Jahrhundert (Leipzig, 1898); International American Conference, Plan of Arbitration for the settlement of disputes between the American Republics, Report and Recommendations (Washington, 1890); International American Conference, Report and Recommendations concerning a Uniform Code of International Law (Washington, 1890); Joseph Imbart Latour, La Mer territoriale (Paris, 1889); Atherley Jones, Commerce in War (London, 1907); Kaltenborn, Critik des Völkerrechts (Leipzig, 1847), Zur Geschichte des Natur- und Völkerrechts (Leipzig, 1848); L. Kamarowsky, Le Tribunal international (trans. into French by Serge de Westman, Paris, 1887); Wilhelm Kaufmann, The Egyptian State Debt and its Relation to International Law (London, 1892); Die Rechtskraft des internationalen Rechtes (Stuttgart, 1899); Kennedy, Influence of Christianity on International Law (Cambridge, 1856); James Kent, Commentary on International Law (rev. with notes and cases by J. T. Abdy, 2nd ed. rev., London, 1877); Kleen, De la contrebande de guerre (Paris, 1893), Lois et usages de la neutralité (2 vols., Paris, 1898-1900), Krigets historia ur folkrättelig Synpunkt (Stockholm, 1906), Kodificerad Handbok i Krigets Lagar till lands och till Sjös (Stockholm, 1909); Otto Krauske, Die Entwickelung der ständigen Diplomatie vom 15ten Jahrhundert bis zu den Beschlüssen von 1815 und 1818 (Leipzig, 1885); Jean Lagorgette, Le Rôle de la guerre. Étude de la sociologie générale (Paris, 1905); Lammasch, Fortbildung des Völkerrechts durch die Haager Conferenz (Munich, 1900); Almá Latifi, Effects of War on Property, being Studies in International Law and Policy (London, 1909); François Laurent, Histoire du droit des gens et des relations internationales, continued at vol. iv. under title of Études de l’histoire de l’humanité (18 vols., Brussels, 1861-1880); Laveleye, Du respect de la propriété privée en temps de guerre (Brussels, 1875); T. J. Lawrence, Essays on Disputed Questions of Modern International Law (Cambridge, 1884), The Principles of International Law (London, 1895, 3rd ed. 1900), Handbook of Public International Law (4th ed., London, 1898), War and Neutrality in the Far East (London, 1904); Emile Lefèvre, Réorganisation du consulat français à l’étranger (Paris, 1883); Ernest Lehr, La Nationalité dans les principaux états du globe (Paris, 1909); Ernest Lemonon, La Seconde Conférence de la paix (Paris, 1908, an exhaustive volume in 790 pp.); de Leval, De la protection diplomatique des nationaux à l’étranger (Brussels, 1907); Leone Levi, The Law of Nature and Nations as affected by Divine Law (London, 1855), International Law, with Materials for a Code of International Law (London, 1888); Liszt, Das Völkerrecht (1898, 6th ed., 1910); Lorimer, The Institutes of the Law of Nations (2 vols., London, 1883); Lueder, Der neueste Codificationsversuch auf dem Gebiete des Völkerrechts (1874); Theo. 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(T. Ba.)
[1] Introduction to the Principles of Morals and Legislation (Clarendon Press edition of 1879).
[2] The Times, July 26, 1887.
[3] R. v. Keyn, 2, Ex.D. 63.