The existence of a “daylight load” tends to reduce the all-round cost of generating and distributing electricity. This daylight load is partly supplied by power for industrial purposes and partly by the demand for electricity in many domestic operations. The use of electric heating and cooking apparatus (including radiators, ovens, grills, chafing dishes, hot plates, kettles, flat-irons, curling irons, &c.) has greatly developed, and provides a load which extends intermittently throughout the greater part of the twenty-four hours. Electric fans for home ventilation are also used, and in the domestic operations where a small amount of power is required (as in driving sewing machines, boot cleaners, washing machines, mangles, knife cleaners, “vacuum” cleaners, &c.) the electric motor is being largely adopted. The trend of affairs points to a time when the total demand from such domestic sources will greatly exceed the demand for lighting only. The usual charges for current to be used in domestic heating or power operations vary from 1d. to 2d. per unit. As the demand increases the charges will undergo reduction, and there will also be a reflex action in bringing down the cost of electricity for lighting owing to the improved load factor resulting from an increase in the day demand. In the cooking and heating and motor departments also there has been improvement in the efficiency of the apparatus, and its economy is enhanced by the fact that current may be switched on and off as required.
The Board of Trade are now prepared to receive electric measuring instruments for examination or testing at their Testing meters. electrical standardizing laboratory, where they have a battery power admitting of a maximum current of 7000 amperes to be dealt with. The London county council and some other corporations are prepared upon requisition to appoint inspectors to test meters on consumers’ premises.
All supply undertakers now issue rules and regulations for the efficient wiring of electric installations. The rules and regulations issued by the institution of electrical engineers have been accepted by many local authorities and companies, and Wiring rules. also by many of the fire insurance companies. The Phoenix fire office rules were the first to be drawn up, and are adopted by many of the fire offices, but some other leading insurance offices have their own rules under which risks are accepted without extra premium. In the opinion of the insurance companies “the electric light is the safest of all illuminants and is preferable to any others when the installation has been thoroughly well put up.” Regulations have also been issued by the London county council in regard to theatres, &c., by the national board of fire underwriters of America (known as the “National Electrical Code”), by the fire underwriters association of Victoria (Commonwealth of Australia), by the Calcutta fire insurance agents association and under the Canadian Electric Light Inspection Act. In Germany rules have been issued by the Verband Deutscher Elektrotechniker and by the union of private fire insurance companies of Germany, in Switzerland by the Association Suisse des électriciens, in Austria by the Elektrotechnischer Verein of Vienna, in France by ministerial decree and by the syndicat professionel des industries électriques. (For reprints of these regulations see Electrical Trades Directory.)
(E. Ga.)
[1] Journ. Inst. Elec. Eng. 28, p. 1. The authors of this paper give numerous instructive curves taken with the oscillograph, showing the form of the arc P.D. and current curves for a great variety of alternating-current arcs.
LIGHTNING, the visible flash that accompanies an electric discharge in the sky. In certain electrical conditions of the atmosphere a cloud becomes highly charged by the coalescence of drops of vapour. A large drop formed by the fusion of many smaller ones contains the same amount of electricity upon a smaller superficial area, and the electric potential of each drop, and of the whole cloud, rises. When the cloud passes near another cloud stratum or near a hilltop, tower or tree, a discharge takes place from the cloud in the form of lightning. The discharge sometimes takes place from the earth to the cloud, or from a lower to a higher stratum, and sometimes from conductors silently. Rain discharges the electricity quietly to earth, and lightning frequently ceases with rain (see [Atmospheric Electricity]).
LIGHTNING CONDUCTOR, or Lightning Rod (Franklin), the name usually given to apparatus designed to protect buildings or ships from the destructive effects of lightning (Fr. paratonnerre, Ger. Blitzableiter). The upper regions of the atmosphere being at a different electrical potential from the earth, the thick dense clouds which are the usual prelude to a thunder storm serve to conduct the electricity of the upper air down towards the earth, and an electrical discharge takes place across the air space when the pressure is sufficient. Lightning discharges were distinguished by Sir Oliver Lodge into two distinct types—the A and the B flashes. The A flash is of the simple type which arises when an electrically charged cloud approaches the earth without an intermediate cloud intervening. In the second type B, where another cloud intervenes between the cloud carrying the primary charge and the earth, the two clouds practically form a condenser; and when a discharge from the first takes place into the second the free charge on the earth side of the lower cloud is suddenly relieved, and the disruptive discharge from the latter to earth takes such an erratic course that according to the Lightning Research Committee “no series of lightning conductors of the hitherto recognized type suffice to protect the building.” In Germany two kinds of lightning stroke have been recognized, one as “zündenden” (causing fire), analogous to the B flash, the other as “kalten” (not causing fire), the ordinary A discharge. The destructive effect of the former was noticed in 1884 by A. Parnell, who quoted instances of damage due to mechanical force, which he stated in many cases took place in a more or less upward direction.