The rise of this curve shows that the force which tends to bring the needle back to its zero position increases with the current, though at a slower ratio than the deflecting force of the current. It follows from this that for large currents the increment in the angle of deflection is comparatively small, and the divisions on the scale whereon the current is to be read off would come too near together to allow accurate readings to be taken. In other words, the range of accurate reading in an instrument so constructed would only be limited. But it is very easy to eliminate the magnetic effect of the coils of the electro magnet on the needle, by introducing an opposite magnetic effect, so that only that part of the force remains which belongs to the soft iron core proper. One way of doing this is by surrounding the needle with a coil, the plane of which is at right angles to the line, S N, and coupling this coil in series with the deflecting coil, D D. If the proportions of this transverse coil and the direction of the current through it be properly chosen, its magnetic effect can be made to exactly counterbalance that of the exciting coils, e e, without perceptibly weakening the magnetism of the iron core. But instead of employing two coils, one parallel and the other transversely to the zero position of the needle, we can obtain the same result in a more simple manner with one coil only, if this be placed at such an angle that its magnetic effect can be substituted for the combined effects of the two coils. In other words, we set the deflecting coil, D D, at a certain angle to the zero position of the needle.
A similar arrangement, though not precisely for the same purpose, has already been suggested and tried by Messrs. Deprez, Carpentier, Ayrton, and Perry, in galvanometers with permanent steel magnets. If the coil, D D, be so placed, the deflecting force which now acts obliquely can be considered as the resultant of two forces, one acting at right angles to the line, S N, as in an ordinary galvanometer, and the other parallel to this line, but in a sense opposed to the action of the electro magnet and its exciting coils. If the angle of obliquity be so chosen that this latter component exactly equals the magnetic effect of the exciting coils per se, an equality which holds good for all currents, then we shall have an almost perfect imitation of a tangent galvanometer with permanent magnets. But we can go a step further than this; we can overbalance the exciting coils by setting the deflecting coil at a greater angle than necessary for the mere elimination of the former, and thus attain that an increase of current results in a slight weakening of the field in which the needle swings, thus allowing the increment of the angle of deflection to be comparatively large even for large currents. In this way it is possible to obtain a more evenly divided scale than in the case when the deflection follows the law of tangents, as in an ordinary tangent galvanometer. This principle of overbalancing the exciting coils is shown on diagram, Fig. 2. The straight line, O G, represents the magnetic effect on the needle of that component of the deflecting force which is parallel, but in sense opposed to S N; as mentioned above, the magnetic effect of the exciting coils is represented by the straight line, O E. The combined effect of these two forces on the needle is represented by the line, O K, the ordinates of which must be deducted from those of the curve, O A B, in order to obtain the total directing force due to each current. This is shown by the curve, O P Q, shown in a thick full line. This curve shows how the directing force or strength of field in which the needle swings decreases with an increasing current. That this does actually take place can easily be proved by experiment.
Fig. 4 shows two curves; the one drawn in a full line is obtained by plotting the deflection in degrees of the needle of a potential indicator as abscissae, and the corresponding electromotive forces measured simultaneously on a standard instrument as ordinates; the dotted line shows what this curve would be with an ordinary tangent galvanometer.
The needle of the potential indicator is mounted at the lower end of a steel axle, to the upper end of which is fastened a light aluminum pointer, whereby the deflection of the needle can be read off on a scale divided directly into volts. The scale is placed within a circular dial plate with glass cover, giving sufficient room for the pointer to swing all round, and the needle is placed within a central tube fitting it closely, which acts as a damper and so makes the instrument almost dead beat. Tube and dial are in one casting. The electro magnet is of horseshoe form fastened to a central tubular stand, which also serves to support the two deflecting coils, one on either side of it. The tube within which the magnetic needle swings is inserted into the stand, which is bored out to the external diameter of the tube. The electro magnet and deflecting coils are wound with from 50 to 100 ohms of fine insulated copper wire, and an additional resistance coil of from 450 to 900 ohms of German silver is added, which can, however, be short circuited by depressing a key when the instrument has to be used for reading low electromotive forces. In this case the indication of the pointer must be divided by ten. If a current be sent through the instrument the wrong way, the needle turns through an angle of 180°, and thus brings the pointer to the side of the dial opposite to where the scale is. In this position no reading can be taken, and to facilitate the sending of the current in the right direction a commutator is added, and the same is so coupled up that when the pointer stands over the scale the handle on the commutator points to the positive terminal screw. There is a limit of electromotive force below which the indicator fails to give reliable readings. For instance, an instrument wound with 100 ohms of copper wire and 900 ohms of German silver can be used for electromotive forces varying between 300 and 3 volts, but would not be reliable for measuring less than 3 volts.
For very exact measurements the instrument should be placed north and south, in the same position in which it was calibrated. Two different patterns of current indicators are on the table; one with double needles suspended on a point in the way compass magnets are suspended, the other with one lozenge shaped needle mounted on an axle and pivoted on jewels, in every way similar to the needle of the potential indicator first described.
For measurements of currents from 10 amperes upward, there is no need to employ a complete coil as the deflecting agent; one half-coil or one strip passing close under the needle gives sufficient deflecting force, and thus the construction of the instrument is rendered extremely simple. The current, after entering at one of the flat electrodes, splits in two parts, each part passing round the winding of an electro magnet of horseshoe form, the similar poles of both magnets pointing toward each other and toward the needle. After traversing the winding, the current unites again, and passes through a metal strip close under the needle, and finally out of the instrument by the other electrode, which lies close under that at which the current entered, but is insulated from it by a sheet of fiber. The metal strip is set at an angle, to balance or overbalance, as may be preferred, the magnetic influence of the exciting coils. The effect of this overbalancing is shown in Fig. 5, where the full curve represents the current as a function of the deflection--obtained by comparison with a standard instrument--and the dotted curve shows what that relation between deflection and current would be if the law of tangents held good for these instruments. It will be seen that, about the middle of the scale, the dotted line coincides nearly with the full line, while at the extreme end of the scale the dotted line is higher. From this follows, that if we compare our indicator from which this curve was taken with any form of tangent instrument showing an equal angle of deflection at the medium reading, it will be seen that the needle of our indicator will be deflected to a greater angle at high readings than that of the tangent galvanometer. Consequently, the divisions on the scale will be widest apart in our instruments, which greatly facilitates high readings.
SECONDARY BATTERIES.
The Consolidated Electric Light Company has now completed the secondary battery which has for some time engaged the attention of its officers, and their regular manufacture and use for electric lighting stations have been fairly entered upon. Among other places to which the batteries have been sent and put into work is Colchester, where the company has for some time had an installation at work, chiefly employing incandescent lamps. The battery consists of lead electrodes, anode and cathode being of the same character. They are constructed of narrow ribbons of lead, each element being made from long lengths of the ribbon about or nearly 0.20 in. width, rolled together into a flat cake like rolls of narrow webbing, as illustrated by the annexed diagram, Fig. 1, the greater part of the ribbon being very thin and flat; but intermediate thicker ribbons are also employed, as in Fig. 2, this thicker ribbon being corrugated as shown, and affording passage room for the circulation of the electrolyte. From four to eight coils of the plain ribbons are between every pair of corrugated ribbons. They are wound up together tightly, and pressed into the nearly rectangular form shown. The bar for suspending the coil plates so made in the cells is soldered to the coil. The object of this construction is of course to obtain large lead surface, and of course a much larger surface is so obtained than could be practically obtained from plain lead plates in the same compass. A battery thus made may be seen at the offices of the company, 110 Cannon Street.
