M. M. Aldil.
Answer.—Taking advantage of the war which occupied the attention of the United States, Napoleon III., planned the conquest of Mexico. With but little difficulty his army succeeded in this enterprise and occupied the City of Mexico in 1863. He soon discovered the barren nature of his conquest and the certainty of final failure. To rid himself of the consequences of what had proved a most costly enterprise, before he should be forced to a humiliating abandonment of the country, he tempted Maximilian, Archduke of Austria, to accent the crown of Mexico. To give eclat to the affair and the color of popular approval, he ordered an election. This was dominated by French troops and Napoleon’s Mexican accomplices, and the result was an apparent popular vote to adopt an imperial form of government and invite Maximilian to accept the throne. In 1864 he was received with festivities and other marks of distinction planned by the French and their Mexican supporters. The Mexican patriots, however, still maintained an organization. When driven out of the capital President Juarez retired to San Luis Potosi, then to Monterey, and finally to Chihuahua, and with his Cabinet still maintained the form of a central, national head of the republic. The French availed of the excuse that Maximilian was in possession of the government to return to France, and leave him to his own resources. The guerrilla bands of patriots which had kept up the harassment of the imperial troops with more or less persistency from the first, gathered strength, and at last, deserted by Napoleon, attacked on all sides by the rallying militia of the republic, the unhappy Emperor undertook to escape from the country, was captured, and finally executed at Queretaro, June 19, 1867. The French were wholly responsible for placing Maximilian in Mexico and for abandoning him to his unhappy fate.
TRADES UNIONS.
Jacksonville, Ill.
Please give us information as to the origin, object, and extent of trades unions.
W. A. Lewis.
Answer.—The various trade societies are the outgrowth of the old English guilds, which originated in the beginning of the eleventh century, and had for their prime object the relief or support of infirm guild-brothers, the burial of the dead with proper religious services, etc. In time, however, these organizations became better classified and more exclusive. One guild was confined to the merchants, another to the woolen manufacturers, another to the cutlery manufacturers, etc.: the objects, at the same time, becoming more comprehensive. In order to secure skilled workmen and prevent competition with the inexperienced, the craftsmen secured the passage of apprenticeship laws. In the case of woolen and several other trades apprentices were required to serve manufacturers seven years. Employers and employes were then united in these efforts, but, finally, as the manufacturing industries became more profitable and improved, and machinery was introduced, the rich masters withdrew from the craftguilds, and began to hire children and men who had not served a complete apprenticeship. This action on the part of the employers caused the first “trade society” to be formed, in 1796, called the Institution, which had for its object the protection of its members against the encroachments of capitalists, and to secure the passage of stricter apprenticeship laws. Since that time the trades unions have increased in number and membership, until they include nearly all the craftsmen of England, and from protective associations they have grown into societies for the general improvement of the laboring classes. To its efforts mainly are due the passage of the eight-hour law of Great Britain and the statute granting the Saturday half-holiday. In the United States similar organizations are found, to which, especially in large cities, nearly all the workmen belong.
THE RED SEA.