It is with these points in mind that I have attempted to decipher the history of the rivers of Pennsylvania. We find in the Susquehanna, which drains a great area in the central part of the state, an example of a river which is at once composite, compound and highly complex. It drains districts of divers structure; it traverses districts of different ages; and it is at present in its fourth or fifth degree of complexity, its fourth or fifth cycle of development at least. In unravelling its history and searching out the earlier courses of streams which may have long since been abandoned in the processes of mature adjustment, it will be seen that the size of the present streams is not always a measure of their previous importance, and to this we may ascribe the difficulty that attends the attempt to decipher a river's history from general maps of its stream lines. Nothing but a detailed examination of geological structure and history suffices to detect facts and conditions that are essential to the understanding of the result.
If the postulates that I shall use seem unsound and the arguments seem overdrawn, error may at least be avoided by not holding fast to the conclusions that are presented, for they are presented only tentatively. I do not feel by any means absolutely persuaded of the correctness of the results, but at the same time deem them worth giving out for discussion. The whole investigation was undertaken as an experiment to see where it might lead, and with the hope that it might lead at least to a serious study of our river problems.
PART FOURTH. The development of the rivers of Pennsylvania.
23. Means of distinguishing between antecedent and adjusted consequent rivers.—The outline of the geological history of Pennsylvania given above affords means of dividing the long progress of the development of our rivers into the several cycles which make up their complete life. We must go far back into the past and imagine ancient streams flowing down from the Archean land towards the paleozoic sea; gaining length by addition to their lower portions as the land grew with the building on of successive mountain ranges; for example, if there were a Cambro-Silurian deformation, a continuation of the Green Mountains into Pennsylvania, we suppose that the pre-existent streams must in some manner have found their way westward to the new coastline; and from the date of this mountain growth, it is apparent that any streams then born must have advanced far in their history before the greater Appalachian disturbance began. At the beginning of the latter, as of the former, there must have been streams running from the land into the sea, and at times of temporary elevation of the broad sand-flats of the coal measures, such streams must have had considerable additions to their lower length; rising in long-growing Archean highlands or mountains, snow-capped and drained by glaciers for all we can say to the contrary, descending across the Green Mountain belt, by that time worn to moderate relief in the far advanced stage of its topographic development, and finally flowing across the coal-measure lowlands of recent appearance. It was across the lower courses of such rivers that the Appalachian folds were formed, and the first step in our problem consists in deciding if possible whether the streams held their courses after the antecedent fashion, or whether they were thrown into new courses by the growing folds, so that a new drainage system would be formed. Possibly both conditions prevailed; the larger streams holding their courses little disturbed, and the smaller ones disappearing, to be replaced by others as the slopes of the growing surface should demand. It is not easy to make choice in this matter. To decide that the larger streams persisted and are still to be seen in the greater rivers of to-day, only reversed in direction of flow, is certainly a simple method of treating the problem, but unless some independent reasons are found for this choice, it savors of assumption. Moreover, it is difficult to believe that any streams, even if antecedent and more or less persistent for a time during the mountain growth, could preserve till now their pre-Appalachian courses through all the varying conditions presented by the alternations of hard and soft rocks through which they have had to cut, and at all the different altitudes above baselevel in which they have stood. A better means of deciding the question will be to admit provisionally the occurrence of a completely original system of consequent drainage, located in perfect accord with the slopes of the growing mountains; to study out the changes of stream-courses that would result from later disturbances and from the mutual adjustments of the several members of such a system in the different cycles of its history; and finally to compare the courses thus deduced with those now seen. If there be no accord, either the method is wrong or the streams are not consequent but of some other origin, such as antecedent; if the accord between deduction and fact be well marked, varying only where no definite location can be given to the deduced streams, but agreeing where they can be located more precisely, then it seems to me that the best conclusion is distinctly in favor of the correctness of the deductions. For it is not likely, even if it be possible, that antecedent streams should have accidentally taken, before the mountains were formed, just such locations as would have resulted from the subsequent growth of the mountains and from the complex changes in the initial river courses due to later adjustments. I shall therefore follow the deductive method thus indicated and attempt to trace out the history of a completely original, consequent system of drainage accordant with the growth of the central mountain district.
In doing this, it is first necessary to restore the constructional topography of the region; that is, the form that the surface would have had if no erosion had accompanied its deformation. This involves certain postulates which must be clearly conceived if any measure of confidence is to be gained in the results based upon them.
24. Postulates of the argument.—In the first place, I assume an essential constancy in the thickness of the paleozoic sediments over the entire area in question. This is warranted here because the known variations of thickness are relatively of a second order, and will not affect the distribution of high and low ground as produced by the intense Permian folding. The reasons for maintaining that the whole series had a considerable extension southeast of the present margin of the Medina sandstone have already been presented.
In the second place, I shall assume that the dips and folds of the beds now exposed at the surface of the ground may be projected upwards into the air in order to restore the form of the eroded beds. This is certainly inadmissible in detail, for it cannot be assumed that the folded slates and limestones of the Nittany valley, for instance, give any close indication of the form that the coal measures would have taken, had they extended over this district, unworn. But in a general way, the Nittany massif was a complex arch in the coal measures as well as in the Cambrian beds; for our purpose and in view of the moderate relief of the existing topography, it suffices to say that wherever the lower rocks are now revealed in anticlinal structure, there was a great upfolding and elevation of the original surface; and wherever the higher rocks are still preserved, there was a relatively small elevation.