6 Pet. Mitth., 1882, 405; Ueber Thalbildung, Prag, 1884.
A brief article7 that I wrote in comment on Löwl's first essay several years ago now seems to me insufficient in its method. It exaggerated the importance of antecedent streams; it took no sufficient account of the several cycles of erosion through which the region has certainly passed; and it neglected due consideration of the readjustment of initial immature stream courses during more advanced river-life. Since then, a few words in Löwl's essay have come to have more and more significance to me; he says that in mountain systems of very great age, the original arrangement of the longitudinal valleys often becomes entirely confused by means of their conquest by transverse erosion gaps. This suggestion has been so profitable to me that I have placed the original sentence at the beginning of this paper. Its thesis is the essential element of my present study.
7 Origin of Cross-valleys. Science, i, 1883, 325.
Phillipson refers to the above-mentioned authors and gives a brief account of the arrangement of drainage areas within our Appalachians, but briefly dismisses the subject.8 His essay contains a serviceable bibliography.
8 Studien über Wasserscheiden. Leipsig, 1886, 149.
If these several earlier essays have not reached any precise conclusion, it may perhaps be because the details of the geological structure and development of Pennsylvania have not been sufficiently examined. Indeed, unless the reader has already become familiar with the geological maps and reports of the Pennsylvania surveys and is somewhat acquainted with its geography, I shall hardly hope to make my case clear to him. The volumes that should be most carefully studied are, first, the always inspiring classic, "Coal and its Topography" (1856), by Lesley, in which the immediate relation of our topography to the underlying structure is so finely described; the Geological Map of Pennsylvania (1856), the result of the labors of the first survey of the state; and the Geological Atlas of Counties, Volume X of the second survey (1885). Besides these, the ponderous volumes of the final report of the first survey and numerous reports on separate counties by the second survey should be examined, as they contain many accounts of the topography although saying very little about its development. If, in addition to all this, the reader has seen the central district of the state and marvelled at its even-crested, straight and zigzag ridges, and walked through its narrow water-gaps into the enclosed coves that they drain, he may then still better follow the considerations here presented.
PART SECOND. Outline of the geological history of the region.
5. Conditions of formation.—The region in which the Susquehanna and the neighboring rivers are now located is built in chief part of marine sediments derived in paleozoic time from a large land area to the southeast, whose northwest coast-line probably crossed Pennsylvania somewhere in the southeastern part of the state; doubtless varying its position, however, by many miles as the sea advanced and receded in accordance with the changes in the relative altitudes of the land and water surfaces, such as have been discussed by Newberry and Claypole. The sediments thus accumulated are of enormous thickness, measuring twenty or thirty thousand feet from their crystalline foundation to the uppermost layer now remaining. The whole mass is essentially conformable in the central part of the state. Some of the formations are resistent, and these have determined the position of our ridges; others are weaker and are chosen as the sites of valleys and lowlands. The first are the Oneida and Medina sandstones, which will be here generally referred to under the latter name alone, the Pocono sandstone and the Pottsville conglomerate; to these may be added the fundamental crystalline mass on which the whole series of bedded formations was deposited, and the basal sandstone that is generally associated with it. Wherever we now see these harder rocks, they rise above the surrounding lowland surface. On the other hand, the weaker beds are the Cambrian limestones (Trenton) and slates (Hudson River), all the Silurian except the Medina above named, the whole of the Devonian—in which however there are two hard beds of subordinate value, the Oriskany sandstone and a Chemung sandstone and conglomerate, that form low and broken ridges over the softer ground on either side of them—and the Carboniferous (Mauch Chunk) red shales and some of the weaker sandstones (Coal measures).