at the Peace of Lunéville (1801). He then took up residence as a private citizen at Ettenheim in Baden, where he married the Princess Charlotte de Rohan Rochefort. He was generally looked upon as the leader of the émigrés (q.v.), and was suspected by the Bonapartists of complicity in the attempt of Cadoudal to assassinate the first consul. An armed force was sent to seize him in Baden in violation of all territorial rights, and he was brought to Vincennes on the 20th March, 1804. A trial, which was a mere form, was held the same night; and on the following morning he was shot in the ditch outside the walls. It was this event which drew from Fouché the comment, since become proverbial: "C'est plus qu'un crime, c'est une faute" ("It is worse than a crime, it is a blunder").
En´gine. See Internal Combustion Engines; Steam-engines.
Engineering, the profession concerned in applying the forces of nature to the service of man. It is divided into two groups, civil engineering and military engineering. This grouping of the profession of engineering is adopted in the Charter of the Institution of Civil Engineers. Army engineers are organized as Royal Engineers. Candidates intending to become Royal Engineer officers have to pass the Army Entrance Examination to gain admission to Woolwich. At Woolwich they receive a course of technical instruction, and then proceed to military engineering duties in the Royal Engineers. Naval engineers enter the service as naval cadets. The education of all naval cadets is the same, no matter in what branch of the service they may ultimately specialize, up to the rank of sub-lieutenant, when specialization begins. The engineering lieutenants undergo a special course of engineering training at the Royal Naval College, Greenwich, and then go to sea. Naval engineers are called upon to undergo a severe medical examination, as the conditions of service call for robust men.
In the ordinary way the term civil engineering is not used in the technical sense explained above, but is the name given to one of the sections into which the whole group is divided. The 'civil' engineer undertakes the design and erection of constructional works, such as harbours, docks, railways, buildings, bridges, &c. A person entering the profession of civil engineering usually receives a technical education at a technical school, or at a university, and then enters the office of a practising civil engineer. He will spend a part of his time at the drawing-board, learning the details of design, and a part of his time actually in the field or on works, assisting in the supervision of the work. The other departments of the group of 'civil engineers'—as distinct from military engineers—are mechanical engineers, electrical engineers, motor engineers, telegraph engineers, radio engineers, mining engineers, aeronautical engineers, &c. With the exception of mining, the courses of training in these sections are very much the same, and consist of a technical course in a college or a university, followed by a practical training as a pupil in a works. The prior technical education is now being insisted upon by most of the large engineering firms, and, in many of the best works, special courses of instruction are given to apprentices as part of their training by the most experienced engineers of the company. In mining, the orthodox training consists of a technical course in one of the mining schools, followed by practical work in a mine. In this country every mining engineer who intends to take a position of responsibility must qualify by passing a Board of Trade examination. Sea-going marine engineering officers have, in addition to undergoing the usual training, to pass the sea-going engineers' examination of the Board of Trade. It will be seen from the above remarks that the courses of training for engineers depend entirely upon the particular branch of engineering which is to be entered. As this point is often not finally settled till fairly late in a young man's career, it is possibly unwise for him to take his initial training in too narrow a groove. A sound, general technical education, combined with three or four years' experience in a general engineering works, will fit him for specializing in very many sections of engineering, whereas if he intends to enter the mining or the civil engineering professions, a sound technical course, followed by a few years' experience in civil or mining engineering work abroad will usually fit him for a specialized post later on.
Engineers, Royal. Military engineers in one form or another, and under various names, have existed in England since the eleventh century. In those early days men of some education—often monks—were appointed as Ingeniatores Regis to undertake the manufacture of the king's engines of war, and to build his castles. In later years they became known as Attilators, and when, with the gradual introduction of gunpowder for military purposes, a combined train was formed, are considered to have given their name to what we now call artillery. In the early seventeenth century this train, composed of engineers and artillery, was merely a temporary corps raised for a particular war and disbanded on its conclusion; but in 1698, when the expediency of maintaining a standing army had been to some extent recognized, the first permanent train was raised. In 1716 a separate body of engineers was formed, but without military rank, and it was not till 1782 that
military titles were conferred on the officers of engineers. In 1787 the Corps of Engineers became by Royal Warrant the Corps of Royal Engineers, with the mottoes Ubique and Quo fas et gloria ducunt, which are also borne by the Royal Regiment of Artillery. For a considerable period the rank and file of the corps were known as the 'Royal Sappers and Pioneers', and the term 'Sapper' is still used to denote a private of the corps. Among the present-day peace-time duties of the Royal Engineers are the construction and maintenance of barracks and military works generally, while for war purposes the corps is organized into mobile units known as field squadrons and companies for general field-work, and into more highly specialized units for mining, heavy bridging, and railway work. The corps is recruited almost entirely from among artisans and tradesmen, and a field company of a total strength of 184 all ranks has representatives of no fewer than nineteen trades in it.
England, including Wales, the southern and larger portion of the Island of Great Britain, is situated between 50° and 55° 46' N. lat., and 1° 46' E. and 5° 42' W. long. On the north it is bounded by Scotland; on all other sides it is washed by the sea: on the east by the North Sea; on the south by the English Channel; and on the west by St. George's Channel and the Irish Sea. Its figure is, roughly speaking, triangular, but with many windings and indentations, the coast-line measuring not less than 2765 miles. The length of the country, measured on a meridian from Berwick nearly to St. Alban's Head, is 365 miles. Its breadth, measured on a parallel of latitude, attains its maximum between St. David's Head, in South Wales, and the Naze, in Essex, where it amounts to 280 miles. The area is 37,340,388 acres or 58,310 sq. miles, of which 32,559,868 acres or 50,874 sq. miles are in England, and 4,780,470 acres or 7466 sq. miles in Wales. This is exclusive of the Channel Islands and the Isle of Man, which together would add 193,647 acres or 302 sq. miles more to the area. The subdivision of England into shires or counties does not appear to have assumed a definite form till the time of Alfred. The existing division was first completed under Henry VIII. There are now 'administrative counties' and 'registration counties', differing in area from the old counties; London being now a county. The figures in the table (p. 241) refer to the old counties.
The capital of England and of the British Empire is London. The cities next in size (in order of population) are: Liverpool, Manchester and Salford, Birmingham, Leeds, Sheffield, Bristol, Bradford, Nottingham, and Hull.
Physical Features.—The chief indentations are: on the east, the Humber, the Wash, and the Thames estuary: on the west, the Solway Firth,