3d. "The countries," says Arthur Young, "the most rich and flourishing of Europe, in proportion to their extent, are probably Piedmont and the Milanese. We there meet all the signs of prosperity—an active and well conditioned population, great exportations, considerable interior consumption, superb roads, many opulent towns, a ready and abundant circulation, the interest of money low, the price of labour high; in one word, it is impossible to cite a single fact that shews that Manchester, Birmingham, Rouen, and Lyons, are in a condition equally prosperous, as the whole of these Dutchies." Their population is stated at "1,114,000, and the territory at little more than two millions of arpents, (acres.) Wheat, rye, indian corn, flax and hemp, the vine and the olive, the caper and the cotton tree, with all kinds of garden fruits and vegetables, are cultivated here: the soil knows no repose, and much of it yields annually and uniformly two crops of grain, or three of grass."[6] These are the miracles of irrigation; not a drop of water is lost. Besides the permanent supplies furnished from lakes, ponds, rivers, creeks and springs, even the winter torrent and summer shower, are every where intercepted by drains, and led to reservoirs; whence they are distributed at will to the neighbouring grounds.
In 1770, an agricultural school was established at Milan, consisting of 220 boys, who were instructed in theoretical and practical husbandry.—This institution has escaped the notice of travellers; and we are unable to say whether it has or has not, fulfilled the intentions of its projectors.
4. Switzerland has about 1444 square leagues of surface, and presents an assemblage of mountains, one rising above another, until the summits are lost in masses of snow and ice, which never melt. This short description sufficiently indicates the character of both the soil and the climate; yet unpropitious as these are, we find a population of 1242 inhabitants to each square league! "This is perhaps the country of the world, which presents the most happy effects of an industry always active and persevering. The traveller who climbs her mountains, is struck with admiration when he beholds vineyards and rich pastures in those places, which before appeared naked and barren rocks. The traces of the plough are perceived on the border of precipices, where the most savage animals do not pass without danger; in one word the inhabitants appear to have conquered all obstacles, whether arising from soil, position or climate and to have drawn abundance from territory, condemned by nature to perpetual sterility."[7]
5. The classical reader will remember, that Spain was the garden of the Hesperides of the Roman writers; by which was meant the combinations of a fine climate, a rich soil and an active and intelligent agriculture. To this state of things, even the empire of the Goths was not fatal,[8] and that of the Moors rendered it still more distinguished. In their hands, the plains of Valentia were cultivated throughout, with the utmost care and skill; and where their wheels, reservoirs, and drains of irrigation, yet remain, the soil continues to yield the richest and most abundant products. In Catalonia, Navarre, Galitia and the Austurias, many species of the ancient agriculture are yet in vigour, because "the leases are long, and the landlord cannot capriciously violate them." The same causes are followed by the same effects, in the three districts of Biscaya, Guiposcoa and Alava. "In running over these, every thing one finds is animated by the presence of liberty and industry; nothing can be more charming than the coasts, nothing more attractive than the culture of the vallies. Throughout the thirty leagues that separate Bedassod from Vittoria, every quarter of an hour we discover some well built village, or comfortable cottage."[9]
How different is the aspect of the other provinces! In these, not more than two thirds of the earth are cultivated; and "it is not uncommon to travel eight and ten leagues together, without finding a trace of human industry. In the district of Badejoz alone, is a desert of twenty-six leagues in length and twelve in breadth.[10] Ten of the fourteen leagues that traverse the duchy of Medina Sidonia, consist altogether of pasturage. There is no where a vestige of man; not an orchard, not a garden, not a ditch, not a cottage to be seen! The great proprietor appears to reign, like the lion in the desert, repulsing by his roaring all who would approach him. But, instead of human colonies, we encounter troops of horned cattle and of mares, wandering, self directed, over plains, to which the eye can discover no boundary or barrier, and which brings to one's recollection the days when the beasts shared with man the empire of the earth."[11]
"Even when the plough is used, it is little more than a great knife fastened to a stick, that just scratches the surface. The grain is threshed by horses, or mules driven over it, of by means of a plank studded with nails or flint stones and drawn across it. With even this miserable culture, the land in Andalusia yields considerable crops; yet are the inhabitants too lazy or too few to gather them together. This is done by Galiegos, who are the labourers of Spain." We need scarcely remark, that in a state of agriculture like this, the peasantry cannot be either well fed or well clothed. "The mountaineers live principally upon roasted acorns and goats' milk, and those of the plain (from Barcelona to Malaga) on bread steeped with oil, and occasionally seasoned with vinegar."[12]
It is wide of our object to examine the causes of the degradation of character, which marks the agriculture of Spain. Well informed writers have ascribed it to the expulsion of the Moors and Jews, to the weight of taxes and imposts, to the mesta or common right of pasturage, to the discovery of America and its consequences, to the effect of climate and the ill judged charity of bishops and convents, but principally to the great manorial grants and unequal division of the soil, which followed the conquest. "We often find six, eight, ten, and even fifteen leagues of extent belonging to one master. The nobility and clergy possess nearly the whole country. One third of Spain belongs to the families of Medina, Celi, D'Alva, De l'Infatado, D'Aceda, and to the archbishops, bishops and chapters of Toledo, Compostella, Valentia, Seville and Murcia. A great proportion of these lands remain untilled and untenanted, and those which are let in Cortijo or farms are double or treble the quantity that can be occupied in tillage."[13]
6. The agriculture of Portugal, has been subjected to the same evils as that of Spain, to which may be superadded, her connexion with Great Britain; under whose policy she has become a raiser of fruit instead of grain.
7. France is probably the country of Europe, which most unites the great desiderata of an extended and profitable agriculture; fertility of soil, mildness of climate, a dense population, an enlightened government, and facility of exportation. Within her ancient limits, she boasts of a surface of more than one hundred and fifteen millions of arpents, and a population of twenty-two millions of inhabitants. The following tables will shew, in a compressed form, the nature of her soil, and the use to which it is put.[14]
GEOLOGICAL TABLE.