In England, the mismanagement of the Crimean campaign brings a storm of indignation upon the Aberdeen ministry. Anticipating a motion for a committee of inquiry, Lord John Russell tenders his resignation, which is followed by overwhelming defeat of the government. Lord Palmerston, now over seventy years of age, is called upon to form a cabinet. Except for one brief interval, Palmerston remains prime minister through the rest of his life. Victor Emmanuel, King of Sardinia, joins in the war against Russia; notable rise and influence of his great minister, Cavour (see 1859). Fall of Sebastopol, and negotiations for peace (see 1856). Great international exhibition opened at Paris. Two attempts made upon life of Napoleon. In England, Captain McClure receives a reward of five thousand pounds and knighthood for discovering the Northwest Passage. Meanwhile, in Africa, Livingstone is pushing steadily across the Dark Continent, and discovers the Victoria Falls of the Zambesi. Severe earthquakes at Tokyo, in Japan, and at Broussa, in Asiatic Turkey.
RULERS—The same as in the previous year, except that Nicholas I is succeeded by his son, Alexander II, as Czar of all the Russias.
1856
THE Treaty of Paris terminates the Crimean War; terms, free navigation of the Danube and neutrality of the Black Sea; guarantee of independence of the Ottoman Empire; Russia renounces protectorate over the Danubian principalities of Wallachia and Moldavia (now forming Rumania), and cedes a portion of Bessarabia. Great Britain, France, and Austria form treaty guaranteeing integrity of the Turkish Empire. Turkey places Christians on equality with Moslems.
In France, great rejoicing and strengthening of Napoleonic dynasty owing to birth of an imperial prince; amnesty granted to one thousand political prisoners.
In England, Dr. Livingstone, African explorer, arrives on a visit and is enthusiastically welcomed and honored. Beginning of second war with Chinese as punishment for frequent attacks upon foreigners and persistent violation of treaties. British and French cooperate in this war; Canton is bombarded and partially destroyed. The Persians having taken Herat, the "key to Afghanistan," in violation of treaty, and Afghanistan being England's northwestern gate to India, war is declared against Persia; British prevail, and Bushire taken. Lord Canning made Governor-General of India. The annexation of Oude (northern India) completes British subjugation of the Indian peninsula from Cape Comorin to the Himalaya Mountains. Great Britain and France remonstrate against the tyrannical policy of the King of Naples, and withdraw their ministers.
Heine, famous German poet; Hugh Miller, Scottish geologist; Sir W. Hamilton, Scottish philosopher; Delaroche, French painter; Thierry, French historian; and Schumann, German composer, died.
In Spain, Espartero is superseded by O'Donnell as prime minister; insurrections occur in Madrid and Barcelona due to latter's dictatorial measures; Narvaez in turn succeeds.
In Central America, war is waged against President Walker by confederation of states led by Costa Rica; Walker defeats three thousand Costa Ricans at Rivas. In Mexico, General Comonfort is elected president. In China, a United States squadron destroys barrier forts near Canton because of an attack on an American boat.
In the United States, civil war wages in Kansas; great political struggle continues there between Free Soil and Slavery factions, and is reflected in Congress; a speech of Senator Sumner, of Massachusetts, provokes violent personal assault by Representative Brooks, of South Carolina. Nine weeks' contest for Speaker of the House of Representatives. Resolution against slave-trade passed by the House. Congress passes an act to aid in the laying of the Atlantic cable. Dispute with England on the construction of the Bulwer-Clayton Treaty and alleged violation of the neutrality laws. Mr. Crampton, the British minister, receives his passports, and the consuls at New York, Philadelphia, and Cincinnati are dismissed. Later in the year the matter is satisfactorily adjusted and articles agreed upon for settlement of Central American questions. American whalers, having brought into port the British arctic relief-ship Resolute, a derelict, Congress purchases it, refits it, and sends it to Queen Victoria as token of American good-will.