In France, M. Simon, being reproached by the President for radical tendencies, resigns as Prime Minister, together with the Cabinet. The President challenges criticism by dissolving the Chamber of Deputies and appealing to a national election, but a strong Republican majority is returned. Death of ex-President Thiers, French patriot and statesman. A French physicist, M. Cailletet, accomplishes the liquification of oxygen, hydrogen, and other gases; Pictet, in Switzerland, does the same. Invention of the Jablochkoff electric candle, and the chain and sprocket device for bicycles.
In Turkey, the Porte rejects the proposals of the conference at Constantinople, including its demands for the protection of Christian provinces, and Russia declares war against Turkey, announcing herself as the defender and protector of the Christians. Russian troops enter Rumania and cross the Danube; they capture Nicopolis and garrison, but at Plevna the heroic defense of the garrison of Turks against nearly two hundred thousand Russians and Rumanians lasts five months, the Russians failing entirely to carry the place by assault. The garrison of forty thousand men finally surrenders because of famine, and Turkish resistance collapses. In Mexico, General Porfirio Diaz is proclaimed constitutional President by the Mexican Congress, for term ending 1880. In Italy, Schiaparelli (astronomer) discovers the “canals” of Mars.
RULERS—The same as in the previous year, except that in the United States Rutherford B. Hayes succeeds Ulysses S. Grant as President.
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1878
In the United States, a great yellow fever epidemic spreads through the Southern States. Congress passes, over the President’s veto, the Bland-Allison Silver Bill, requiring the purchase monthly by the Secretary of the Treasury of between two and four million dollars’ worth of silver bullion for coinage (repealed, 1890). The silver dollar of four hundred and twelve and one-half grains is made a legal tender. Edison produces a perfected electric light for general use. Death of William Cullen Bryant, American poet, and of Bayard Taylor, American poet, essayist, and traveler. Important inventions: the carbon filament for incandescent electric lamp (Edison); Sholes’s typewriter perfected by E. Remington & Sons; the yielding spinning spindle bearing and the Gessner cloth-finishing press; gelatine emulsion dry plate introduced. Immigration, 138,469; exports, $694,865,766.
In England, protest is made by Disraeli against the Russo-Turkish treaty of San Stefano, and English diplomacy and firmness forces Russian consent to a congress of the five great powers at Berlin for settlement of terms. The Berlin congress cedes Island of Cyprus to England as her share of the spoils of the Russo-Turkish War, and yields to other demands of England. Disraeli returns from the congress, having brought back “peace with honor” and secured a great diplomatic triumph for England; height of Disraeli’s power. He and Bismarck the two greatest men in the world at this time (see 1881–1884). The Ameer of Afghanistan having rebuffed a British diplomatic mission, a force of English troops invades the country. Flight and death of the Ameer, Shere Ali; his son and successor, Yakoub Khan, submits to English treaty terms (see 1879). Death of Princess Alice.
In France, a great international exhibition is held in Paris. In Germany, the Congress of Berlin meets under the presidency of Prince Bismarck and modifies and revises the treaty terms of Russia with Turkey. Death of Petermann, German geographer. In Italy, King Victor Emmanuel and Pope Pius IX die within a few days of each other. At the last the Pope generously forgets their strife and differences, and sends the viaticum (eucharist) to the dying king. Victor Emmanuel is succeeded by his son, Humbert I; the Pope is succeeded by Cardinal Pecci, as Leo XIII. Rise of Crispi to prominence and power in the Italian Cabinet. In Mexico, under President Diaz, a stronger and abler government begins to develop; his consolidation of power secures domestic peace (see 1880). In Chile, a serious dispute arises with Bolivia and Peru with reference to northern boundary line (see 1879).
RULERS—The same as in the previous year, except that in Italy Victor Emmanuel is succeeded by Humbert I; Pope Pius IX is succeeded by Cardinal Pecci, as Leo XIII.
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