Since Argumentation and Debate has come to be a regular course of study in almost every college and university and in many of our larger preparatory and high schools, there has been a tendency among text-book writers to multiply rules regarding every phase of the subject. By consulting various works it will be found that no less than sixteen different rules have been formulated for the construction of the brief alone. One book contains as many as thirteen of these. To the average student the result is confusion rather than enlightenment. One of the objects of the author has been to remedy this condition of affairs by attempting to state clear-cut rules, which, though covering all contingencies, are limited to what is essential and practical. In regard to illustrations and examples the same idea has been carried out.

The order in which the subjects are discussed is that dictated by actual practice. The object has been to lead the student step by step, to point out all the difficulties along the way, and to show by precept and example how they may be overcome. After the essential definitions are given and the importance of the subject upon which he is entering is set forth, the student is shown where to find, and how to choose and express, a proposition for argument. He is then directed how to analyze that proposition for the purpose of finding out what he must do in order to establish its truth or falsity. Next, he is informed of the sources of evidence bearing upon the proposition, and how such evidence is to be collected and used. Directions for constructing a brief out of this evidence are then presented and the way in which the finished argument is to be developed is set forth. The psychological development of an argument is here for the first time given full consideration. Following this the student is shown how to defend his own argument and overthrow that of his opponent. Finally, instructions are given for delivering the argument in the most effective manner. Even without the aid of an instructor the student could follow the argumentative process through to the end.

The exercises given are intended to be practical and to assure a thorough working knowledge of the discussion. The material in the appendix may be used at the discretion of the instructor. The prevalence of references to the Lincoln-Douglas Debates is intentional and arises from the fact that the circumstances under which these debates occurred, the personalities of the participants, and the argumentative excellence of the discussions make them especially useful to the student.

The writer wishes to acknowledge his indebtedness to all those who have heretofore written upon this subject as well as to the students whom it has been his pleasure to instruct. He wishes especially to acknowledge the assistance of Professor Raymond M. Alden, who gave a careful reading to the greater part of the manuscript and made many helpful suggestions.

VICTOR ALVIN KETCHAM.

Columbus, Ohio, February 1, 1914.

CONTENTS

PART I
The Practice of Argumentation and Debate
CHAPTER I
DEFINITION AND IMPORTANCE OF ARGUMENTATION
Section Page
I.Definitions[3]
II.The Object of Argumentation[5]
III.Educational Importance of Argumentation[6]
IV.Practical Importance of Argumentation[7]
CHAPTER II
THE PROPOSITION
I.The Subject-Matter of the Proposition[9]
1.The subject must be interesting[9]
2.Subjects for first practice should be those of which the debater has a general knowledge[11]
3.The subject must be debatable[12]
II.The Wording of the Proposition[13]
1.The proposition should be so narrowed as to embody only one central idea[14]
2.The proposition should be stated in the affirmative[15]
3.The proposition should contain no ambiguous words[16]
4.The proposition should be worded as simply and as briefly as is consistent with the foregoing requirements[18]
CHAPTER III
ANALYZING THE PROPOSITION
I.The Importance of Analysis[21]
II.Essential Steps in Analysis[22]
1.A broad view of the subject[22]
2.The origin and history of the question[23]
3.Definition of terms[24]
4.Narrowing the question[27]
(1)Excluding irrelevant matter[27]
(2)Admitting matters not vital to the argument[28]
5.Contrasting the affirmative arguments with those of the negative[29]
III.The Main Issues[36]
CHAPTER IV
EVIDENCE
I.Sources of Evidence[39]
1.Personal knowledge[39]
2.Personal interviews[40]
3.Personal letters[41]
4.Current literature[42]
5.Standard literature[45]
6.Special documents[46]
(1)Reports and pamphlets issued by organizations[46]
(2)Reports and documents issued by the government[48]
II.Recording Evidence[51]
1.Use small cards or sheets of paper of uniform size[53]
2.Place only one fact or point on each card[53]
3.Write only on one side of the card[53]
4.Express the idea to be put on the card in the simplest and most direct terms[54]
5.Make each card complete in itself[54]
6.In recording material for refutation put an exact statement of the argument to be refuted at the top of the card[55]
7.State the main issue or subject to which the evidence relates at the top of the card[55]
8.State the source from which the evidence is taken at the bottom of the card[56]
III.Selecting Evidence[58]
1.The evidence must come from the most reliable source to which it can be traced[58]
2.A person quoted as authority must be unprejudiced, in full possession of the facts, and capable of giving expert testimony on the point at issue[60]
3.Evidence should be examined to determine whether there are attendant circumstances which will add to its weight[62]
4.The selection of evidence must be fair and reasonable[64]
5.The position and arguments of the opposition should be taken into consideration[65]
6.That evidence which will appeal most strongly to those to whom the argument is to be addressed should be selected[66]
IV.The Amount of Evidence Required[68]
CHAPTER V
CONSTRUCTING THE BRIEF
I.The Purpose of the Brief[72]
II.Method of Constructing the Brief[73]
III.Rules for Constructing the Brief[76]
1.A brief should be composed of three parts: Introduction, Proof, and Conclusion[76]
2.Each statement in a brief should be a single complete sentence[77]
3.The relation which the different statements in a brief bear to each other should be indicated by symbols and indentations[77]
4.The introduction should contain the main issues together with a brief statement of the process of analysis by which they were found[79]
5.The main statements in the proof should correspond to the main issues set forth in the introduction, and should read as reasons for the truth of the proposition[84]
6.Every statement in the proof must read as a reason for the statement to which it is subordinate[85]
7.Statements introducing refutation must state clearly the argument to be refuted[87]
8.The conclusion should be a summary of the main arguments just as they stand in the proof of the brief and should close with an affirmation or denial of the proposition in the exact words in which it is phrased[89]
Specimen student brief[91]
CHAPTER VI
CONSTRUCTING THE ARGUMENT
I.Attention—Aroused by the Introduction[95]
1.Kinds of attention[96]
A.Natural attention[96]
B.Assumed attention[97]
2.Methods of securing proper attention[98]
A.Immediate statement of purpose[98]
B.Illustrative story[100]
C.Quotations[101]
II.Interest—Maintained by the Proof[102]
1.Necessity[103]
2.Methods of maintaining interest[103]
A.Appropriate treatment[103]
a.Adaptation to speaker or writer[103]
b.Adaptation to audience or reader[103]
c.Adaptation to time or occasion[106]
B.Logical structure[106]
C.Style[107]
a.Elements of style[108]
(1)Vocabulary[108]
(2)Sentences[109]
(3)Paragraphs[110]
b.Qualities of style[110]
(1)Clearness[110]
(2)Force[117]
(3)Elegance[120]
III.Desire—Created by the Conclusion[121]
1.Necessity[121]
2.Interest[122]
A.Convenience[122]
B.Pleasure[123]
C.Profit[123]
3.Jealousy, vanity, and hatred[124]
4.Ambition[124]
5.Generosity[125]
6.Love of right and justice[125]
7.Love of country, home, and kindred[125]
CHAPTER VII
REBUTTAL
I.Preparation for Rebuttal[129]
1.Sources of material for rebuttal[129]
A.Material acquired in constructing the argument[129]
B.Books, papers, and documents[131]
C.Questions[133]
2.Arrangement of rebuttal material[139]
A.Classification of cards[140]
B.Arranging books, papers, and documents[142]
C.The summary and closing plea[143]
II.Presentation of Rebuttal[146]
1.Attention to argument of opponent[146]
2.Selecting arguments to be refuted[147]
3.Reading quotations[149]
4.Teamwork[149]
5.Treatment of opponents[150]
6.The summary and closing plea[152]
CHAPTER VIII
DELIVERING THE ARGUMENT
I.Methods of delivering the argument[153]
1.Reading[153]
2.Memorizing the argument verbatim[154]
3.Memorizing the argument by ideas[155]
II.Physical preparation for delivery[158]
1.Position[159]
2.Voice[160]
3.Emphasis[162]
4.Key, rate, and inflection[162]
5.Gesture[164]
6.Transitions[165]
7.Presenting charts[166]
III.Mental preparation for delivery[167]
1.Directness[167]
2.Earnestness[169]
3.Confidence[170]
PART II
The Theory of Argumentation and Debate
CHAPTER I
INDUCTIVE ARGUMENT
I.The Application of Processes of Reasoning to Argumentation[175]
II.Inductive Reasoning[176]
III.The Application of Inductive Reasoning to Inductive Argument[179]
IV.Requirements for an Effective Inductive Argument[182]
1.Perfect inductions[182]
2.Imperfect inductions[183]
A.The number of specific instances supporting the conclusion must be sufficiently large to offset the probability of coincidence[183]
B.The class of persons, events, or things about which the induction is made must be reasonably homogeneous[185]
C.The specific instances cited in support of the conclusion must be fair examples[186]
D.Careful investigation must disclose no exceptions[187]
E.The conclusion must be reasonable[188]
CHAPTER II
DEDUCTIVE ARGUMENT
I.Deductive Reasoning[190]
II.The Application of Deductive Reasoning to Deductive Argument[196]
III.The Enthymeme[201]
CHAPTER III
ARGUMENT FROM CAUSAL RELATION
I.Argument from Effect to Cause[208]
1.The alleged cause must be sufficient to produce the effect[210]
2.No other cause must have intervened between the alleged cause and the effect[211]
3.The alleged cause must not have been prevented from operating[212]
II.Argument from Cause to Effect[213]
1.The observed cause must be sufficient to produce the alleged effect[215]
2.When past experience is invoked it must show that the alleged effect has always followed the observed cause[215]
3.No force must intervene to prevent the observed cause from operating to produce the alleged effect[216]
4.The conclusion established should be verified by positive evidence whenever possible[217]
III.Argument from Effect to Effect[218]
CHAPTER IV
ARGUMENT FROM ANALOGY
I.The two factors in the analogy must be alike in all particulars which affect the conclusion[228]
II.The alleged facts upon which the analogy is based must be true[231]
III.The conclusion established by the analogy should be verified by positive evidence whenever possible[232]
CHAPTER V
FALLACIES
I.Fallacies of Induction[235]
1.The number of specific instances relied upon to support the conclusion should be determined[235]
2.The class of persons, events, or things about which the induction is made should be scrutinized with a view to determining whether it is homogeneous[236]
3.Whether or not the specific instances cited in support of the conclusion are fair examples should be determined[236]
4.A search should be made for exceptions to the rule stated by the induction[237]
5.The induction should be examined with a view to determining its reasonableness[237]
II.Fallacies of Deduction[238]
1.Material fallacies[238]
2.Logical fallacies[239]
(1)The undistributed middle[239]
(2)The illicit process[244]
(3)Irrelevancy of the premises, or ignoring the question[245]
A.The appeal to passion, prejudice, or humor[246]
B.The personal attack upon an opponent[246]
C.The personal attack upon the person or persons concerned in the controversy[246]
D.The appeal to custom and tradition[247]
E.Shifting ground[248]
F.Refuting an argument which has not been advanced[248]
G.Arguing on a related proposition[248]
(4)Begging the question[249]
A.Arguing in a circle[249]
B.Directly assuming the point at issue[250]
C.Indirectly assuming the point at issue[251]
III.Fallacies of Causal Relation[252]
1.Fallacies of the argument from effect to cause[252]
(1)Mistaking coincidence for cause[253]
(2)Mistaking an effect for a cause[254]
(3)Mistaking a subsequent cause for a real cause[254]
(4)Mistaking an insufficient cause for a sufficient cause[255]
2.Fallacies of the argument from cause to effect[255]
3.Fallacies of the argument from effect to effect[256]
IV.Fallacies of the Argument from Analogy[256]
CHAPTER VI
REFUTATION
I.Revealing a Fallacy[261]
II.Reductio ad Absurdum[262]
III.The Dilemma[263]
IV.Residues[265]
V.Inconsistencies[267]
VI.Adopting an Opponent’s Evidence[268]

PART I
THE PRACTICE OF ARGUMENTATION AND DEBATE

THE THEORY AND PRACTICE OF ARGUMENTATION AND DEBATE