A speaker should always exercise self-control. At no time should he put all his force into the language which he uses. He should always maintain a reserve force which will give a background of power to his delivery. Never should he allow his temper to be ruffled by anything that may happen during the discussion; to indulge in an outburst of temper is positively belittling. Washington’s advice to young men was “Conquer the territory under your own hat.” This is an apt expression for the debater to keep constantly in mind. The complete self-reliance which puts the speaker at his ease is acquired only by practice. In fact, many great speakers have gone through life facing a period of nervousness just before appearing before their audiences. This trait, however, is not necessarily an evil. The speaker should always appreciate the importance of the occasion and his own responsibility. If he does this to the extent of having his emotions aroused it often makes his delivery more direct, earnest, and confident. The point to be remembered is that he must have that confidence which convinces his hearers that his argument is the result of clean, clear-cut thinking, and persuades them to act in accordance with the truth which that argument reveals.
The power of a speaker does not exist in the development of any one trait. He must study methods of delivery, and must not weary of painstaking physical and mental preparation. Back of all of this must be the man himself, entrenched in mental and moral strength. No defect is too trifling to be overcome by constant vigilance, no improvement so unimportant as not to merit the most arduous striving. The student who is ambitious to acquire the art of persuasion should practice constantly and neglect no opportunity to appear before an audience. For every principle gleaned from these pages the debater must provide himself with ninety-nine opportunities for practice. It is only by actual practice that anyone can hope to travel far along the road which leads to the goal of perfection.
PART II
THE THEORY OF ARGUMENTATION AND DEBATE
CHAPTER I
INDUCTIVE ARGUMENT
All persons of average intelligence and education are able to distinguish an obviously sound argument from an obviously false argument. No knowledge of argumentation or logic is necessary to enable such persons to perceive the truth of one or the falsity of the other. However, the line which separates the true from the false, or the sound from the unsound, is not always clearly marked. In fact most arguments involve a consideration of so many factors that their truth or falsity is very difficult to determine. It is for this reason that we must study the various theoretical forms in which an argument may be presented.
I. The application of processes of reasoning to argumentation.
Logic deals with the formal process of reasoning. It tests the validity of a reasoning process by applying certain principles which will reveal its strength or weakness. It is not essential to know the science of logic in order to reason or to argue well. Many of our most profound thinkers have possessed only a superficial knowledge of that subject. A knowledge of the forms of reasoning which logic considers, or of the names applied to them, is by no means indispensable to an intelligent argument or debate. Nevertheless, an exact knowledge of logical processes of reasoning as applied to the construction of arguments is absolutely indispensable to him who would become master of the Art of Argumentation and Debate.
There are two uses to which the debater must put these correct processes of reasoning. In the first place, he must use them to test the validity of his own arguments. In the second place, he must use them to test the validity of his opponents’ arguments. Both of these uses will suggest to the mind of the student the importance of the application of processes of reasoning to argumentation.
An argument is seldom presented in such a form that it is possible to apply logical reasoning processes to it as it stands. Usually some parts are omitted and others are expanded or modified for the purpose of greater effect in persuasion. The student must therefore grasp the essential parts of his argument before he can arrange them in the formal manner which logic demands. This very exercise of cutting up a discussion into parts for the purpose of determining whether it is rightly constructed is a mental exercise of unusual value. Furthermore, it reveals any weak places in the argument and shows where it must be made strong if it is to be effective. In like manner the debater is able to apply the same processes to the arguments of his opponents to show their weaknesses and enable him to direct his efforts toward these vulnerable points.