The Holy Roman Empire

by Viscount James Bryce Bryce

B.C.
Battle of Pharsalia	48
A.D.
Council of Nicæa	325
End of the separate Western Empire	476
Revolt of the Italians from the Iconoclastic Emperors	728
Coronation of Charles the Great	800
End of the Carolingian Empire	888
Coronation of Otto the Great	962
Final Union of Italy to the Empire	1014
Quarrel between Henry IV and Gregory VII	1076
The First Crusade	1096
Battle of Legnano	1176
Death of Frederick II	1250
League of the three Forest Cantons of Switzerland	1308
Career of Rienzi	1347-1354
The Golden Bull	1356
Council of Constance	1415
Extinction of the Eastern Empire	1453
Discovery of America	1492
Luther at the Diet of Worms	1521
Beginning of the Thirty Years' War	1618
Peace of Westphalia	1648
Prussia recognized as a Kingdom	1701
End of the House of Hapsburg	1742
Seven Years' War	1756-1763
Peace of Luneville	1801
Formation of the German Confederation	1815
Establishment of the North German Confederation	1866

CHRONOLOGICAL TABLE
of
EMPERORS AND POPES.

Year of Accession.	Bishops of Rome, or Popes.	Emperors.	Year of Accession
A.D.			B.C.
		Augustus.	27
			A.D.
		Tiberius.	14
		Caligula.	37
		Claudius.	41
42	St. Peter, (according to Jerome).
		Nero.	54
67	Linus, (according to Jerome, Irenæus, Eusebius).
68	Clement, (according to Tertullian and Rufinus).	Galba, Otho, Vitellius, Vespasian.	68
78	Anacletus (?).
		Titus.	79
		Domitian.	81
91	Clement, (according to later writers).
		Nerva.	96
		Trajan.	98
100	Evaristus (?).
109	Alexander (?).
		Hadrian.	117
119	Sixtus I.
129	Telesphorus.
		Antoninus Pius.	138
139	Hyginus.
143	Pius I.
157	Anicetus.
		Marcus Aurelius.	161
168	Soter.
177	Eleutherius.
		Commodus.	180
		Pertinax.	190
		Didius Julianus.	191
		Niger.	192
193	Victor (?).	Septimius Severus.	193
202	Zephyrinus (?).
		Caracalla, Geta, Diadumenian.	211
		Opilius Macrinus.	217
		Elagabalus.	218
219	Calixtus I.
		Alexander Severus.	222
223	Urban I.
230	Pontianus.
235	Anterius or Anteros.	Maximin.	235
236	Fabianus.
		The two Gordians, Maximus Pupienus, Balbinus.	237
		Gordian the Younger.	238
		Philip.	244
		Decius.	249
251	Cornelius.	Gallus.	251
252	Lucius I.	Volusian.	252
253	Stephen I.	Æmilian, Valerian, Gallienus.	253
257	Sixtus II.
259	Dionysius.
		Claudius II.	268
269	Felix.
		Aurelian.	270
275	Eutychianus.	Tacitus.	275
		Probus.	276
		Carus.	282
283	Caius.
		Carinus, Numerian, Diocletian.	284
		Maximian, joint Emperor with Diocletian.	286
296	Marcellinus.		[305(?)
304	Vacancy.	Constantius, Galerius.	304(?)
		Licinius.	or 307]
308	Marcellus I.	Maximin.	308
		Constantine, Galerius, Licinius, Maximin, Maxentius, and Maximian reigning jointly.	309
310	Eusebius.
311	Melchiades.
314	Sylvester I.
		Constantine (the Great) alone.	323
336	Marcus I.
337	Julius I.	Constantine II, Constantius II, Constans.	337
		Magnentius.	350
352	Liberius.
		Constantius alone.	353
356	Felix (Anti-pope).
		Julian.	361
		Jovian.	363
		Valens and Valentinian I.	364
366	Damasus I.
		Gratian and Valentinian I.	367
		Valentinian II and Gratian.	375
		Theodosius.	379
384	Siricius.
		Arcadius (in the East), Honorius (in the West).	395
398	Anastasius I.
402	Innocent I.
		Theodosius II. (E)	408
417	Zosimus.
418	Boniface I.
418	Eulalius (Anti-pope).
422	Celestine I.
		Valentinian III. (W)	424
432	Sixtus III.
440	Leo I (the Great).
		Marcian. (E)	450
		Maximus, Avitus. (W)	455
		Majorian. (W)	455
		Leo I. (E)	457
461	Hilarius.	Severus. (W)	461
		Vacancy. (W)	465
		Anthemius. (W)	467
468	Simplicius.
		Olybrius. (W)	472
		Glycerius. (W)	473
		Julius Nepos. (W)	474
		Leo II, Zeno, Basiliscus (all E.)	474
		Romulus Augustulus. (W)	475
		(End of the Western Line in Romulus Augustus.	476)
		(Henceforth, till A.D. 800, Emperors reigning at Constantinople).
483	Felix III[2].
		Anastasius I.	491
492	Gelasius I.
496	Anastasius II.
498	Symmachus.
498	Laurentius (Anti-pope).
514	Hormisdas.
		Justin I.	518
523	John I.
526	Felix IV.
		Justinian.	527
530	Boniface II.
530	Dioscorus (Anti-pope).
532	John II.
535	Agapetus I.
536	Silverius.
537	Vigilius.
555	Pelagius I.
560	John III.
		Justin II.	565
574	Benedict I.
578	Pelagius II.	Tiberius II.	578
		Maurice.	582
590	Gregory I (the Great).
		Phocas.	602
604	Sabinianus.
607	Boniface III.
607	Boniface IV.
		Heraclius.	610
615	Deus dedit.
618	Boniface V.
625	Honorius I.
638	Severinus.
640	John IV.
		Constantine III, Heracleonas, Constans II.	641
642	Theodorus I.
649	Martin I.
654	Eugenius I.
657	Vitalianus.
		Constantine IV (Pogonatus).	668
672	Adeodatus.
676	Domnus or Donus I.
678	Agatho.
682	Leo II.
683(?)	Benedict II.
685	John V.	Justinian II.	685
685(?)	Conon.
687	Sergius I.
687	Paschal (Anti-pope).
687	Theodorus (Anti-pope).
		Leontius.	694
		Tiberius.	697
701	John VI.
705	John VII.	Justinian II restored.	705
708	Sisinnius.
708	Constantine.
		Philippicus Bardanes.	711
		Anastasius II.	713
715	Gregory II.
		Theodosius III.	716
		Leo III (the Isaurian).	718
731	Gregory III.
741	Zacharias.	Constantine V (Copronymus).	741
752	Stephen (II).
752	Stephen II (or III).
757	Paul I.
767	Constantine (Anti-pope).
768	Stephen III (IV).
772	Hadrian I.
		Leo IV.	775
		Constantine VI.	780
795	Leo III.
		Deposition of Constantine VI by Irene.	797
		Charles I (the Great).	800
		(Following henceforth the new Western line).
		Lewis I (the Pious).	814
816	Stephen IV.
817	Paschal I.
824	Eugenius II.
827	Valentinus.
827	Gregory IV.
		Lothar I.	840
844	Sergius II.
847	Leo IV.
855	Benedict III.	Lewis II.	855
855	Anastasius (Anti-pope).
858	Nicholas I.
867	Hadrian II.
872	John VIII.
		Charles II (the Bald).	875
		Charles III (the Fat).	881
882	Martin II.
884	Hadrian III.
885	Stephen V.
891	Formosus.	Guido.	891
		Lambert.	894
896	Boniface VI.	Arnulf.	896
896	Stephen VI.
897	Romanus.
897	Theodore II.
898	John IX.
		Lewis (the Child).[†]	899
900	Benedict IV.
		Lewis III (of Provence).	901
903	Leo V.
903	Christopher.
904	Sergius III.
911	Anastasius III.
		Conrad I.	912(?)
913	Lando.
914	John X.
		Berengar.	915
		Henry I (the Fowler).	918
928	Leo VI.
929	Stephen VII.
931	John XI.
936	Leo VII.	Otto I (the Great).	936
939	Stephen VIII.
941	Martin III.
946	Agapetus II.
955	John XII.
		Otto I, crowned at Rome.	962
963	Leo VIII.
964	Benedict V (Anti-Pope?).
965	John XIII.
972	Benedict VI.
		Otto II.	973
974	Boniface VII (Anti-pope?).
974	Domnus II (?).
974	Benedict VII.
983	John XIV.	Otto III	983
985	John XV.
996	Gregory V.
996	John XVI (Anti-pope).
999	Sylvester II.
		Henry II (the Saint).	1002
1003	John XVII.
1003	John XVIII.
1009	Sergius IV.
1012	Benedict VIII.
1024	John XIX.	Conrad II (the Salic).	1024
1033	Benedict IX.
		Henry III.	1039
1044	Sylvester (Anti-pope).
1045(?)	Gregory VI.
1046	Clement II.
1048	Damasus II.
1048	Leo IX.
1054	Victor II.
		Henry IV.	1056
1057	Stephen IX.
1058	Benedict X.
1059	Nicholas II.
1061	Alexander II.
1073	Gregory VII (Hildebrand).
1080	(Clement, Anti-pope).
1086	Victor III.
1087	Urban II.
1099	Paschal II.
		Henry V.	1106
1118	Gelasius II.
1118	Gregory, (Anti-pope).
1119	Calixtus II.
1121	(Celestine, Anti-pope).
1124	Honorius II.
		Lothar II (the Saxon).	1125
1130	Innocent II.
	(Anacletus, Anti-pope).
1138	Victor (Anti-pope).	[*]Conrad III.	1138
1143	Celestine II.
1144	Lucius II.
1145	Eugenius III.
		Frederick I (Barbarossa).	1152
1153	Anastasius IV.
1154	Hadrian IV.
1159	Alexander III.
1159	(Victor, Anti-pope).
1164	(Paschal, Anti-pope).
1168	(Calixtus, Anti-pope).
1181	Lucius III.
1185	Urban III.
1187	Gregory VIII.
1187	Clement III.
		Henry VI.	1190
1191	Celestine III.
1198	Innocent III.	[*]Philip, Otto IV (rivals).	1198
		Otto IV.	1208
		Frederick II.	1212
1216	Honorius III.
1227	Gregory IX.
1241	Celestine IV.
1241	Vacancy.
1243	Innocent IV.
		[*]Conrad IV, [*]William, (rivals).	1250
1254	Alexander IV.	Interregnum.	1254
		[*]Richard (earl of Cornwall). [*]Alfonso (king of Castile), (rivals).	1257
1261	Urban IV.
1265	Clement IV.
1269	Vacancy.
1271	Gregory X.
		[*]Rudolf I (of Hapsburg).	1272
1276	Innocent V.
1276	Hadrian V.
1277	John XX or XXI.
1277	Nicholas I
1281	Martin IV.
1285	Honorius IV.
1289	Nicholas IV.
1292	Vacancy.	[*]Adolf (of Nassau).	1292
1294	Celestine V.
1294	Boniface VIII.
		[*]Albert I.	1298
1303	Benedict XI.
1305	Clement V.
		Henry VII.	1308
1314	Vacancy.	Lewis IV.	1314
		(Frederick of Austria, rival).
1316	John XXI or XXII.
1334	Benedict XII.
1342	Clement VI.
		Charles IV.	1347
1352	Innocent VI.	(Günther of Schwartzburg, rival).
1362	Urban V.
1370	Gregory XI.
1378	Urban VI, Clement VII (Anti-pope).	[*]Wenzel.	1378
1389	Boniface IX.
1394	Benedict (Anti-pope).
		[*]Rupert.	1400
1404	Innocent VII.
1406	Gregory XII.
1409	Alexander V.
1410	John XXII or XXIII.	Sigismund.	1410
		(Jobst of Moravia, rival).
1417	Martin V.
1431	Eugene IV.
		[*]Albert II.	1438
1439	Felix V (Anti-pope).
		Frederick III.	1440
1447	Nicholas V.
1455	Calixtus IV.
1458	Pius II.
1464	Paul II.
1471	Sixtus IV.
1484	Innocent VIII.
1493	Alexander VI.	[*]Maximilian I.	1493
1503	Pius III.
1503	Julius II.
1513	Leo X.
		Charles V.[3]	1519
1522	Hadrian VI.
1523	Clement VII.
1534	Paul III.
1550	Julius III.
1555	Marcellus II.
1555	Paul IV.
		[*]Ferdinand I.	1558
1559	Pius IV.
		[*]Maximilian II.	1564
1566	Pius V.
1572	Gregory XIII.
		[*]Rudolf II.	1576
1585	Sixtus V.
1590	Urban VII.
1590	Gregory XIV.
1591	Innocent IX.
1592	Clement VIII.
1604	Leo XI.
1604	Paul V.
		[*]Matthias.	1612
		[*]Ferdinand II.	1619
1621	Gregory XV.
1623	Urban VIII.
		[*]Ferdinand III.	1637
1644	Innocent X.
1655	Alexander VII.
		[*]Leopold I.	1658
1667	Clement IX.
1670	Clement X.
1676	Innocent XI.
1689	Alexander VIII.
1691	Innocent XII.
1700	Clement XI.
		[*]Joseph I.	1705
		[*]Charles VI.	1711
1720	Innocent XIII.
1724	Benedict XIII.
1740	Benedict XIV.
		[*]Charles VII.	1742
		[*]Francis I.	1745
1758	Clement XII.
		[*]Joseph II.	1765
1769	Clement XIII.
1775	Pius VI.
		[*]Leopold II.	1790
		[*]Francis II.	1792
1800	Pius VII.
		Abdication of Francis II.	1806
1823	Leo XII.
1829	Pius VIII.
1831	Gregory XVI.
1846	Pius IX.

[†]The names in italics are those of German kings who never made any claim to the imperial title.

[*] Those marked with an asterisk were never actually crowned at Rome.

THE HOLY ROMAN EMPIRE.

CHAPTER I.
INTRODUCTORY.

Of those who in August, 1806, read in the English newspapers that the Emperor Francis II had announced to the Diet his resignation of the imperial crown, there were probably few who reflected that the oldest political institution in the world had come to an end. Yet it was so. The Empire which a note issued by a diplomatist on the banks of the Danube extinguished, was the same which the crafty nephew of Julius had won for himself, against the powers of the East, beneath the cliffs of Actium; and which had preserved almost unaltered, through eighteen centuries of time, and through the greatest changes in extent, in power, in character, a title and pretensions from which all meaning had long since departed. Nothing else so directly linked the old world to the new—nothing else displayed so many strange contrasts of the present and the past, and summed up in those contrasts so much of European history. From the days of Constantine till far down into the middle ages it was, conjointly with the Papacy, the recognised centre and head of Christendom, exercising over the minds of men an influence such as its material strength could never have commanded. It is of this influence and of the causes that gave it power rather than of the external history of the Empire, that the following pages are designed to treat. That history is indeed full of interest and brilliance, of grand characters and striking situations. But it is a subject too vast for any single canvas. Without a minuteness of detail sufficient to make its scenes dramatic and give us a lively sympathy with the actors, a narrative history can have little value and still less charm. But to trace with any minuteness the career of the Empire, would be to write the history of Christendom from the fifth century to the twelfth, of Germany and Italy from the twelfth to the nineteenth; while even a narrative of more restricted scope, which should attempt to disengage from a general account of the affairs of those countries the events that properly belong to imperial history, could hardly be compressed within reasonable limits. It is therefore better, declining so great a task, to attempt one simpler and more practicable though not necessarily inferior in interest; to speak less of events than of principles, and endeavour to describe the Empire not as a State but as an Institution, an institution created by and embodying a wonderful system of ideas. In pursuance of such a plan, the forms which the Empire took in the several stages of its growth and decline must be briefly sketched. The characters and acts of the great men who founded, guided, and overthrew it must from time to time be touched upon. But the chief aim of the treatise will be to dwell more fully on the inner nature of the Empire, as the most signal instance of the fusion of Roman and Teutonic elements in modern civilization: to shew how such a combination was possible; how Charles and Otto were led to revive the imperial title in the West; how far during the reigns of their successors it preserved the memory of its origin, and influenced the European commonwealth of nations.