Wakeman's handbook of Irish antiquities

by W. F. Wakeman

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Raths and Duns.​—​Notwithstanding the destructive agencies of time, and especially the reclamation and enclosure of land, the number of raths still remaining is very great. The Ordnance Survey showed 10,000 in Munster, Limerick having 2191,[76] and the number for the whole of Ireland may be taken from 28,000 to 30,000. Dr. Joyce states that the term Rath enters into the name of 700 townlands, and Lis into 1400 townlands and villages. That so many of these structures remain, is due largely to the fact that the peasantry have a superstitious reverence for these ‘forts’ as the home of the ‘good people’ or fairies. They are also popularly attributed to the Danes; but their very number and distribution, and the fact that the Danes never established themselves beyond the east and south-east coast of Ireland, are sufficient, without mentioning other considerations, to show that the Danes had nothing to do with their erection. Fort-building covered a long period of time; and at whatever remote date it commenced, there is evidence to show that the forts were built and restored for many centuries after the introduction of Christianity into Ireland.

The general plan is circular and the construction simple. A deep ditch or trench was dug and the earth thrown up, forming a steep enclosing dyke or rampart, which was probably rendered further secure by a stake fence. They vary in size from a few yards to a hundred in diameter, and often consist merely of the circular entrenchment, the area of which is slightly raised above the level of the adjoining land. These are common in the central parts of Ireland, such as the motes of Granard, Slane, and Clones. But in the case of many of the more important they were enclosed by two, three, or more breastworks; and within the inner rampart stood a steep mound, flat at the top, on which was erected the house of the king or chief, overlooking the camp. On the verge of steep cliffs, or rocky headlands jutting into the sea, and on the summit of inland hills, these defences were generally erected. Sites were chosen whose natural features afforded a ready means of rendering the positions secure. The term Dun is usually applied to this class of fortification, and it enters into the composition of many place-names, Dr. Joyce stating that it is used as a prefix to 600 townlands. Alignments of forts are an important feature in Ireland, and will be found especially on the sea-coast from Waterford, westwards, and round to the north of Mayo, and also in many inland districts. Perhaps the largest earthwork in Ireland is the Dun at Dorsey, County Armagh. It is about one mile long and 600 yards wide, and consists of a great embankment with a fosse on each side and outer ramparts. Portions still remain sufficient to show the magnitude of this great earthwork when originally constructed.[77]

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Souterrains.​—​Within the inner rampart, but not in the raised mound as far as we have examined, underground passages and chambers varying in plan have been discovered. These earth-houses, to which the term Souterrain is now usually applied, are generally similar in structure to the sepulchral chambers already described, the passages being lined and covered with stones, and the chambers of a bee-hive shape, formed by overlapping courses. Where the earth was sufficiently compact the excavation was sometimes made practically without the aid of stone, which was used only in forming the entrance. It is evident from the intricate nature of these underground structures, and the readiness with which they could be defended from attack, that they were designed as places of safety. They were probably used both as places of temporary retreat and as storehouses, the want of ventilation, save that derived from the narrow external entrance, rendering them unfit for continued habitation. Tacitus says the Germans dug underground dwellings: ‘These they use as winter retreats and granaries, for they preserve a moderate temperature; and upon an invasion, when the open country is plundered, these recesses remain inviolated, either because the enemy is ignorant of them, or because he will not trouble himself with the search.’

An examination of the kitchen-middens of some of these raths produced the ordinary ‘finds’ of primitive dwellings, stone, flint, and bone weapons and implements, the bones of animals used for food, fragments of pottery, bronze and iron objects. The Whitechurch rath, examined by Mr. R. J. Ussher, yielded a variety of these, including many iron objects, which showed that its occupation probably covered a long period of time. The rath had been deeply excavated to form the chambers and an extensive system of connecting galleries.[78] Souterrains are found apart from raths in isolated places in many parts of Ireland. They are very similar to those found in Scotland, where they are known as ‘eirde houses,’ ‘weems,’ or ‘Picts’ houses,’ and also to those found in Cornwall, which seems to point to a common origin for all. ‘The only slight difference between the Irish and the Scotch,’ says Dr. Munro, ‘is in the extent of curvature of the main gallery, which appears to be less pronounced in the Irish souterrains.’ He also points out that they differ in being so often found in connection with raths, as among the Scotch examples ‘only one instance is known inside a fort​—​viz., that in the ancient fort known as Macbeth’s Castle on Dunsinane Hill.’[79] Underground dwellings have been used by primitive races everywhere​—​in Asia, Africa, and America, as many travellers testify.

Gurteen Rath is situated about four miles from Mullingar. Within it is an interesting souterrain, of which the accompanying figure is a plan. The entrance is on the east side, and the passage is 17 feet long, 3 feet wide, and 3 feet high. At the end a step of 10 inches, and at the same time an additional rise in the height, give an elevation to the roof of about 6 feet; to the right is another passage leading to a circular chamber 7 feet high. The main passage takes a curve to the west, and at 12 feet a short passage leads to another circular, but smaller, chamber. Continuing, and making a full distance of 46 feet, the main passage ends in a third, and largest, circular chamber, 7½ feet high and 10½ in diameter. The chambers are of the ordinary bee-hive pattern.[80]

Plan of Souterrain, Gurteen Rath, near Mullingar.

The date of the Irish souterrains is as difficult to determine as that of the raths themselves. From their similarity to the sepulchral chambers it has been thought by some that they were constructed by the same race of people and about the same time. But there are essential points of difference between them: souterrains are generally much more complicated in plan, and were evidently designed to be defended; they are underground, whereas the sepulchral chambers are under raised mounds; the latter are megalithic, while, as a rule, the former are microlithic, although in the case of the Doon souterrain, stones 9 and 10 feet in length were used.[81] The presence of Ogam stones in some, as has already been mentioned, would point to a period for their construction subsequent to the use of these stones as monuments. Whatever the date of the construction of these places of security may have been, there can be very little doubt of the necessity for their use at least in early mediæval times. When we take into account the lawlessness, and the insecurity and indifference to human life during the Norse period of invasion, which, as the Annalists fully testify, were only too common under the rule of irresponsible petty kings and chiefs, we can readily understand the necessity of refuges such as the forts and underground chambers afforded, by which the construction of some may perhaps be accounted for.