1. Ought you to concede?
    1. What are “the true nature and the peculiar circumstances of the object which we have before us?”
      1. America has a rapidly growing population.
      2. [143] It has a rapidly increasing commercial value, shown by
        1. Its demand for our goods.
        2. The value of its agricultural products.
        3. The value of the products of its fisheries.
      3. There is in the people a “fierce spirit of liberty.” This is the result of
        1. Their descent from Englishmen.
        2. Their popular form of government.
        3. Religion in the North.
        4. The haughty spirit of the South.
        5. Their education.
        6. Their remoteness from the governing body.
    2. “You have before you the object.” “What ... shall we do with it?” “There are but three ways of proceeding relative to this stubborn spirit in the colonies.”
      1. To change it by removing the causes. This is impracticable.
      2. To prosecute it as criminal. This is inexpedient.
      3. To comply with it as necessary. This is the answer to the first question.
  2. Of what nature ought the concession to be?
    1. A concession that grants to any colony the satisfaction of the grievances it complains of brings about conciliation and peace. This general proposition is established by the following examples. It has done so in
      1. Ireland,
      2. Wales,
      3. Durham, and
      4. Chester.
    2. The grievances complained of in America are unjust taxation and no representation.
    3. Therefore these resolutions rehearsing facts and calculated to satisfy their grievances will bring about conciliation and peace.
      1. [144] They are unrepresented.
      2. They are taxed.
      3. No method has been devised for procuring a representation in Parliament for the said Colonies.
      4. Each colony has within itself a body with powers to raise, levy, and assess taxes.
      5. These assemblies have at sundry times granted large subsidies and aids to his Majesty’s service.
      6. Experience teaches that it is expedient to follow their method rather than force payment.
    4. As a result of the adoption of these resolutions, “everything which has been made to enforce a contrary system must, I take it for granted, fall along with it. On that ground, I have drawn the following resolutions.”
      1. It is proper to repeal certain legislation regarding taxes, imports, and administration of justice.
      2. To secure a fair and unbiased judiciary.
      3. To provide better for the Courts of Admiralty.
    5. He next considers objections.
  3. Conclusion.

Notice first the introduction. It goes straight to the question. To tell a large opposition that it has vacillated on a great question is not calculated to win a kind hearing; yet this point, necessary to Burke’s argument, is so delicately handled that no one could be seriously offended, nor could any one charge him with weakness. The introduction serves its purpose; it gains the attention of the audience and it exactly states the proposition.

He then divides the whole argument into two parts. The framework is visible, and with intent. These great divisions he takes up separately. First, that there may be a perfect understanding of the question, he explains “the true nature and the peculiar circumstances of the object which we have before us.” This illustrates [145] the use of exposition in argument. The descent and education did not prove that the Americans had a fiery spirit; that was acknowledged and needed no proof. It simply sets forth the facts,—facts which he afterward uses as powerful instruments of conviction. As long as a man can use exposition, he can carry his readers with him; it is when he begins to argue, to force matters, that he raises opposition. So this use of exposition was fortunate. America was an English colony. Her strength and riches were England’s strength and wealth. It would be pleasing to all Englishmen to hear the recital of America’s prosperity. Up to the time he asks, “What, in the name of God, shall we do with it,” the oration is not essentially argument; it does nothing more than place “before you the object.”

In the section marked “I. B,” Burke begins the real argument by the method of elimination. He asserts that there are only three ways of dealing with this fierce spirit of liberty. Then he conclusively proves the first impracticable and the second inexpedient. There is left but the one course, concession. This method of proof is absolutely conclusive if every possible contingency is stated and provided for. Notice that in this section “B” everything that was mentioned in the first section “A” is used, and the whole is one solid mass moving forward irresistibly to the conclusion of the first and the most important part of this argument.

The second main division is devoted to the conclusion of the first. If you must concede,—the conclusion of the first half,—what will be the nature of your concession? A concession, to be a concession, must grant what the colonists wish, not what the ministry thinks would be good for them. Then by the history [146] of England’s dealings with Ireland, Wales, Chester, and Durham, he proves that such a concession has been followed by peace. This makes the major premise of his syllogism, stated in “II. A.” The minor premise is a statement of the grievances of the colonies. The conclusion is in the resolutions for the redress of the grievances of the colonies. The second part is then one great syllogism, the premises of which are established by ample proof, the conclusion of which cannot well be disputed.

“And here I should close,” says the orator; the direct argument is finished. There are some objections which demand dignified consideration. At this point, however, it is easy to refute any objections, for behind each word there is now the crushing weight of the whole argument.

The conclusion recites the advantages of Burke’s plan over all others, and reasserts its value, now proven at every point. It is a powerful summary, and a skillful plea for the adoption of a policy of conciliation with the colonies of America.

Every kind of argument is used in this oration. One would look long for a treasury better supplied with illustrations. The great conclusions are reached by the certain methods of elimination and deduction. In establishing the minor points Burke has used arguments from sign, cause, example, and induction. He calls in testimony; he quotes authority; he illustrates. Not any device of sound argument that a man honest in his search for truth may use has been omitted. It is worthy of patient study.

In conclusion, the student of argument should learn well the value of different kinds of argument; he should exercise the most careful scrutiny in selecting his material, without any hesitation rejecting irrelevant [147] matter; he should state the proposition so that it cannot be misunderstood; he must consider his readers, guiding his course wisely with regard for all the conditions under which he produces his argument; he should remember that the law in argument is climax, and that coherence should be sought with infinite pains. Above all, the man who takes up a debate must be fair and honest; only so will he win favor from his readers, and gain what is worth more than victory,—the distinction of being a servant of truth.

[148]