Now a considerable part of the Pentateuch deals with Egyptian matters, and it appears to be written with correct details throughout. This would of course be only natural in a contemporary writer living in Egypt, but would be most unlikely for a late writer in Canaan. The question is therefore of great importance in deciding on the date of the book; so we will first consider these Egyptian references (as they are called) in the history of Joseph, then in that of Moses, and then in the laws and addresses. They cannot of course be properly appreciated without some knowledge of ancient Egypt, but they are far too important to be omitted. It is disappointing to have to add that the evidence is almost entirely indirect, but up to the present no reference to either Joseph, or Moses, has been found on the Egyptian monuments, and none to the Israelites themselves that are at all conclusive.
(1.) In the history of Joseph.
To begin with, there are three cases where it is sometimes said that the writer seems not to have been a contemporary, since Egyptian customs are there explained, as if unknown to the reader. These are their eating at different tables from the Hebrews, their dislike of shepherds, and their habit of embalming.[26] But the inference from the first two is extremely doubtful; though that from the third is rather in favour of a late date. There is not, however, a single word here (or anywhere else) which is incorrect for Egypt, or which shows that the writer himself was unaware of its customs.
[26] Gen. 43. 32; 46. 34; 50. 3.
On the other hand, there is abundant evidence in favour of a contemporary date. The Pharaoh is generally thought to be Apepi II., who belonged to a foreign dynasty of Shepherd Kings, probably Asiatic tribes like the Israelites themselves. And this will explain the evident surprise felt by the writer that one of his chief officers should be an Egyptian, which seems so puzzling to the ordinary reader.[27] It will also account for Joseph and his brethren being so well received, and for their telling him so candidly that they were shepherds, though they knew that shepherds were hated by the Egyptians. Had the Pharaoh himself been an Egyptian, this was hardly the way to secure his favour.
[27] Gen. 39. 1.
We will now consider a single chapter in detail, and select Gen. 41; nearly every incident in which shows a knowledge of ancient Egypt:
Ver. 1. To begin with, the words Pharaoh and the river (i.e., the Nile), though they are the proper Egyptian names, seem to have been adopted in Hebrew, and occur all through the Old Testament; so they afford no indication of date.
2-4. The dreams, however, are peculiarly Egyptian. Cattle along the river bank, and feeding on the reed-grass (an Egyptian word for an Egyptian plant), was a common sight in that country, but must have been almost unknown in Canaan. And their coming up out of the river was specially suitable, as they represented the years of plenty and famine, which in Egypt depend entirely on the rise of the Nile.
5-7. In the same way wheat with several ears is known to have been produced in Egypt; but is nowhere mentioned as grown in Canaan.
8. Moreover, we know that the Pharaohs attached great importance to dreams, and used to consult their magicians and wise men when in doubt; both these classes being often mentioned—and mentioned together—on the monuments.
9-12. We also know that there were officials corresponding to the chief butler and the chief baker. And a reference has even been found to the curious custom of the former giving the King fresh grape-juice, squeezed into a cup (Gen. 40. 11), which is not likely to have been known to anyone out of Egypt.
13. And hanging the chief baker evidently means, from Gen. 40. 19, hanging up the dead body, after he had been beheaded; which latter was an Egyptian, and not a Jewish, punishment.
14. Next we are told, that when Joseph was hurriedly sent for by Pharaoh, he yet stopped to shave. And this was only natural, as the upper class of Egyptians always shaved; but it would scarcely have occurred to anyone in Canaan, as the Israelites always wore beards.[28]
[28] 2 Sam. 10. 5.
35. So again the custom of laying up corn in storehouses, to provide against the frequent famines, and for taxation, was thoroughly Egyptian, the Superintendent of the Granaries being a well-known official. But as far as we know nothing of the kind existed in Canaan.
39. We then come to the promotion of Joseph; and several instances are known of foreigners, and even slaves, being promoted to high offices in Egypt.
40. And the monuments show that it was the regular Egyptian custom to have a Superintendent, who should be over the house.
42. Joseph is then given Pharaoh's signet ring, the use of which, at this early period, has been fully confirmed by the inscriptions. And he also receives fine linen (an Egyptian word being used for this) and a gold chain about his neck. This latter was a peculiarly Egyptian decoration, being called receiving gold, and is continually alluded to on the monuments. And a specimen may be seen in the Cairo Museum, which happens to date from about the time of Joseph.
43-44. And the apparently insignificant detail that Joseph rode in a chariot (implying horses) is also interesting, since, as far as we know, horses had only recently been introduced into Egypt by the Shepherd Kings. And had they been mentioned earlier—as, for instance, among the presents given to Abraham[29]—it would have been incorrect. And the expression Abrech, translated Bow the knee, is probably an Egyptian word (Margin R.V.).
[29] Gen. 12. 16.
45. We also know that when foreigners rose to great importance in Egypt they were often given a new name. And Joseph's new name, Zaphenathpaneah, (probably meaning Head of the College of Magicians, a title he had just earned[30]) as well as Asenath, and Potiphera, are all genuine Egyptian names; though (with the exception of Asenath) they have not at present been found as early as the time of Joseph.
[30] H. E. Naville, Professor of Egyptology, at the University of Geneva, 'Archæology of the Old Testament,' 1913, p. 80.
49. Lastly, the usual Egyptian custom (as shown by the monuments) of having a scribe to count the quantity of corn as it is stored, is incidentally implied in the statement that on this occasion, owing to its great abundance, Joseph had to leave off numbering it.
Thus everything in this chapter, and the same may be said of many others, is perfectly correct for Egypt; though much of it would be incorrect for Canaan, and is not likely to have been known to anyone living there. Yet the writer not only knows it, but takes for granted that his readers know it too, as he never explains anything. So the narrative is not likely to have been written after the time of Moses, when the Israelites left Egypt. And this, it may be added, is the opinion of many who have made a special study of ancient Egypt. Thus Prof. Naville declares 'I do not hesitate to say that he (Moses) was the only author who could have written the history of Joseph, such as we have it.'[31]
[31] Transactions of Victoria Institute, vol. xlvii., 1915, p. 355.