Although familiar with most subjects relating to Merchant Ships, I have found it alike necessary and desirable to look to others for aid in collecting some of the materials for this work; and I am especially indebted to my friends Mr. Vaux, F.R.S., late of the British Museum, and Sir Patrick Colquhoun, Q.C., for much valuable assistance rendered by them in connection with the two volumes now presented to the public. By combining the learning of my friends, so far as regards the records of the ships and commerce of ancient times, with my own knowledge of the subject, I am not without hope that the work may in some respects prove useful.
I am also much indebted to Mr. T. H. Farrer, of the Board of Trade, and to his assistant, Mr. Thomas Gray, of the Marine Department, for many valuable suggestions; and in thanking them for their courtesy, I venture to express the belief that by their assistance and that of other friends I shall be able to give in the two succeeding volumes necessary to complete the work an impartial narrative of the many important events and changes which have occurred within my own time, I might say within my own experience, together with an accurate account of the ships and maritime commerce of the age in which we live.
W. S. LINDSAY.
Shepperton Manor, Middlesex.
CONTENTS.
| INTRODUCTORY. | |
| Introductory—The first attempt to float, by means of a hollowed logand raft—The Ark—Boats of skin—Earliest boats or ships—Theirform—Mode of construction—Names of ships—Decorations—Launching,&c.—Master—Mate—Boatswain—St. Paul’s ship—Rigand Sails—Undergirders—Anchors and cables—Decks—Nauticalinstruments—Mariner’s compass—Speed of ancient ships | Pages [xv]-[xliv] |
| CHAPTER I. | |
| Maritime commerce of Antiquity—Coasting—Tyre—Argonautic Expedition—QueenSemiramis—The Phœnicians—Early notices ofthem—The prophecy of Ezekiel—Trade in tin—Origin of thename “Cassiterides Insulæ”—Amber—Mainland trade of Phœnicia—Causeof prosperity—Carthage—Utica—Commercial policy—Tradewith Spain—Trade in Africa—The commercial policy of Carthage—Limitsof trade | [1]-[24] |
| CHAPTER II. | |
| Earliest caravan trade—Ophir—Port of Ezion-geber—The voyages ofthe Jewish ships—The inland commerce of Solomon—Babylon—Gerrhaand Tylos—Babylonian commerce—Assyrian boats—Lydia—Ionia—Caria—Phrygia—Scythians—Theircaravan routes to India,viâ the Caspian | [25]-[43] |
| CHAPTER III. | |
| Egypt—Commerce—Sesostris—Naucratis—The Nile—Sailors of Egypt—Theirboats—How navigated—Mode of building them—Cargobarges—Their rig—Steering—Passage and cargo boats—Boat forthe conveyance of the dead—Variety of boats, and their superiority—Prosperityof Egypt under the Ptolemies, B.C. 283—Canal overthe Isthmus—Ptolemy’s great ship—Analysis of her dimensions—TheThalamegus, her size and splendour—Great size of otherEgyptian monuments—Probability of such vessels having been constructed—Hiero’sgreat ship—Not unlike a modern inland Americansteamer—Details of her construction, accommodation, outfit, anddecorations—Greek ships—Habits of piracy—Corinth—Athens—Thesize of her ships as described by Herodotus—Discrepancybetween the different accounts | [44]-[78] |
| CHAPTER IV. | |
| Route viâ the Cape to India, discovered by the Phœnicians, B.C. 610-594—Voyageof the first Eudoxus—Story of the second Eudoxus (ofCyzicus)—Opinion of Dr. Vincent on the circumnavigation of Africa—Remarksupon his opinion—Routes to India and to the East by land—Originof the caravans—Resting-places—Their management—Themore important routes—Eastern—Southern—Northern—The character,size, and discipline of the caravans—The route from Sardesto Susa, described by Herodotus—Between Tyre and Gerrha—Lengthof journey—Importance of Petra—Intercourse between Syria andBabylon—Value of the trade of Babylon—Caravan routes from thatcity to Candahar, Cashmir, Ecbatana, and Peucela on the Indus—Earliestland and sea combined routes—Commercial efforts of Alexanderin the East, and the impetus he gave to the development ofthe trade with India by the erection of Alexandria, B.C. 331—Time ofthe departure of the fleets—Residence of the merchants and courseof trade from Alexandria to the East—Value of the trade with India—Theports through which it was conducted—Course of the voyageto India—Outwards—Homewards—The vessels engaged in the tradewith India—The nature of their cargoes—Immense demand at Romefor the luxuries of the East, and the enormous prices paid for them—Importsand exports to and from Pattala—Barygaza or Baroach—Musiris—CapeComorin—Ceylon—Time of departure of the fleets forAfrica and the coasts of Arabia—Rhapta, or Quiloa—Sofala—Articlesof commerce—Moosa—Yemen, or Arabia Felix—Its great wealth,and the importance attached to its trade—Kane—Sachal—Moskha—Maskat—Omana | [79]-[121] |
| CHAPTER V. | |
| Ancient India—Expedition of Sesostris—Doubts of Dr. Robertson withregard to it—Hindustan, its early commerce, and the probability,from its great value, of its having attracted Sesostris—The conquestsof Darius, and of Alexander—Trade with China—Its maritime intercourse—Acomparison of the Chinese boats with those of the ancientBritons—The conquests of Alexander in India, B.C. 327-5—The gainto commerce by his conquests—The spread of knowledge—His marchinto India—Preparations for the voyage down the Indus—Departureof his fleet from Nicæa, B.C. 326—Description of the vessels employed—Progressof the fleet—Establishment of new cities on thebanks of the Indus—Character of the vessels engaged on the voyagefrom the Indus to Susa—Time occupied—Future voyages—Death ofAlexander, B.C. 323—Eastern India—Ceylon—Internal commerce ofIndia—Manufactures of India—State of the trade of India from thesixth to the ninth century—Change in the course of trade—Persiantrade with India—The Muhammedans, A.D. 622—The extent oftheir commerce with the East—The trade between Constantinopleand India and China | [122]-[161] |
| CHAPTER VI. | |
| Rome—The repugnance of the Romans to seafaring pursuits—Single-bankedgalleys of the Liburni—The fleets of Rome—Their creationand slow progress—The form and construction of their galleys—Warwith the pirates of Cilicia—First treaty with Carthage, B.C. 509—Itspurport—College of merchants, established B.C. 494—No senatorallowed to own ships, B.C. 226—Cicero’s opinion of merchants—Contemptfor mariners—Reduction of Egypt, B.C. 30, and trade withIndia—Customs’ duties—The excise—Bounties on the importationof corn, A.D. 14—System of collecting the taxes—Value of the tradewith Alexandria—Its extent—Vessels of Spain—Pharos or lighthouseat Gessoriacum—The shipping described by Tacitus—Rhodians—Theirmaritime laws—System of accounts in use at Rome—Thecorn trade of the city—Port of Ostia | [162]-[189] |
| CHAPTER VII. | |
| Roman empire—The cause of its decline—First invasion of Goths,A.D. 217—Their habits—Defeat the Emperor Decius, A.D. 257—Rebellionof Egypt, A.D. 273—Franks and Allemanni—The Veneti onthe coast of Gaul—Constantinople founded, A.D. 323—Its commercialadvantages and harbour—The extent of its ancient trade—BlackSea and Sea of Azov—Oppressive taxation—The laws affectingshipping—Constans and Julian—Produce of certain lands appliedto the sea service—Neglect and decline of commerce, and sufferingsof the people—Siege of Rome by Alaric and the Goths, A.D. 408—Genseric—Hiscapture of Rome—Rise of Constantinople—Customs’duties—Silk trade—Naval expedition of Justinian against the Vandals,A.D. 533, and conquest of Carthage—Rise of the Muhammedanpower, A.D. 622—Rapid conquests; of Jerusalem, A.D. 636; of Alexandria,A.D. 638; and of Africa, A.D. 647—Sieges of Constantinople,A.D. 668-675 | [190]-[221] |
| CHAPTER VIII. | |
| Constantinople, A.D. 718-1453: its increased prosperity—Manufacturesof Greece—System of taxation, and of expenditure—Fleets andmode of warfare—Struggle for maritime supremacy—Scandinavians—Muscovites,their trade and ships—Russians; their early commerce,and attempts to capture Constantinople—Their ships—TheNormans, and their expeditions—Establish themselves in Italy, A.D.1016—Amalfi—Futile attempts of the Normans to take Constantinople,A.D. 1081-1084—Rise of Venice—The cause of its prosperity—Spreadof the Scythians, Huns, or Turks, A.D. 997-1028—TheCrusades, A.D. 1095-1099—Siege of Acre, A.D. 1189—Armistice,A.D. 1192—Fourth Crusade, A.D. 1202—The effect of the Crusadeson the commerce of Constantinople, and on its fall—Power ofVenice, A.D. 1202; her ships join in the Crusade, which was afterwardsaltered from its original design—They besiege and take Constantinople,A.D. 1204—Commerce declines under the Latins, butrevives on the restoration of the Empire, A.D. 1261—Genoa—Genoesesettlement at Galata and Pera—Arrogance of the Genoese,who at last rebel, A.D. 1348, and declare war, A.D. 1349—Theprogress of the Turks, A.D. 1341-47—Their fleet—First use ofgunpowder and of large cannon—The Turks finally become mastersof the Eastern capital, A.D. 1453 | [222]-[252] |
| CHAPTER IX. | |
| Ancient galleys—Different descriptions—Their outfit—Beaks—Stern—Mastsand sails—Oars—Mode of rowing—Single-banked galleys—Frenchgalley—General Melvill’s theory—Charnock’s theory—Vossius’sviews—Mr. Howell’s plan—Plan of Rev. J. O. W. Haweis([Appendix No. 1])—Our own views—Biremes—Triremes—Quadriremes—Quinqueremes—Hexiremesand larger galleys—Suggestedplan of placing the rowers—Summary | [253]-[297] |
| CHAPTER X. | |
| Britain: its maritime position, and limited extent of over-sea trade—Thevessels of the ancient Britons, and the larger kind used by theVeneti—Encouragement by law to construct superior vessels—Britainand its inhabitants little known—Cæsar’s reasons forinvading Britain—First invasion, B.C. 55—Size of his transports—Secondinvasion, B.C. 54—Cæsar’s preference for small vessels—Violentstorm, and great loss of ships—Final action on the banks ofthe Thames—Cæsar makes terms with the Britons, and re-embarkshis legions—Advantages derived by the Britons from their intercoursewith the Romans—Conquest of Britain, A.D. 43: its state ofcivilization—Speech of Caractacus—The course of commerce withRome—Inland water traffic—Transit duties—Articles of commerce,and knowledge of manufactures and of the arts—Colchester and itsmint—London—Agricola, A.D. 78-85—His fleet sails round Britain—Theinfluence of the rule of Agricola on the Britons—Hadrian,A.D. 120—State of commerce in and after his reign—The Caledonianincursions—Piratical invasions of the Germans—Carausius seizesthe fleet of Maximian, and declares himself Emperor of Britain—Welshand Scots, A.D. 360—Saxons, A.D. 364—Their ships—State ofthe Britons when abandoned by the Romans | [298]-[330] |
| CHAPTER XI. | |
| The early Scandinavian Vikings settle on the coast of Scotland andelsewhere—Great skill as seamen—Discovery of ancient ship, and ofother early relics—Incursions of the Saxons and Angles into Britain;and its state soon afterwards—London—Accession of Offa, A.D.755—Restrictions on trade and commerce—Salutary regulations—Charlemagne’sfirst treaty of commerce with England, A.D. 796—Extensionof French commerce, A.D. 813—Commerce of Englandharassed by the Danes—Their ships, and the habits of their owners—Increaseof the Northern marauders—Language of the Northmenstill spoken by mariners in the North—Accession of Alfred theGreat, A.D. 871: his efforts to improve navigation, and to extendthe knowledge of geography—Foundation of a royal and commercialnavy—His voyages of discovery and missions to the East—Reignof Edward the Elder, A.D. 901-25, and of his son Athelstan, A.D.925-41—Edgar’s fleet, and his arrangements for suppressing piracy—Thewisdom of his policy—Ethelred II., A.D. 979-1016—Sufferingsof the people—Charges on vessels trading to London—Olaf, kingof Norway, his ships, and those of Swein—Love of display—Modeof navigating—Canute, A.D. 1016—Reduction of the English fleet—Prosperityof commerce—Norman invasion, A.D. 1066—Numberof vessels engaged, and their form—State of trade and commerce—Exports—Manufactures—Wealth—Imports—Taxation—Londonspecially favoured—Chester specially burdened—State of the peopleat the time of the Conquest | [331]-[372] |
| CHAPTER XII. | |
| Increase of the English fleet, A.D. 1066—Its participation in the Crusadesto the Holy Land—Departure of the English expedition—Arrivalat Messina—Number of ships—Their order of sailing—Arrivalat, and capture of, Acre, 10th June, 1191—Richard returns to England—Maritimelaws founded on the “Rôles d’Oléron”—Power to pledgeship and tackle—The sailors consulted—Laws relating to hiring—Drunkenness—Sickness—Damageto ship and cargo—Quarrels—Mooringof ships—Partnership in freight—Food—Obligation to carry theship to her destination—Rules as to sailors—Demurrage—Bottomry—Abad pilot forfeited his head—Punishments—Shares in fishingvessels—Wreckers—Jetsam and flotsam—Royal fish—Timber ofwrecks—Remarks on these laws—Code of Wisby—Magna Charta,A.D. 1215—Henry III., A.D. 1216—Naval actions—Cinque Ports—Increaseof piracy—Measures for its suppression—Treaty of commercewith Norway, A.D. 1217, and facilities afforded to foreign merchants—Englishmerchants first open trading establishments abroad—Originof the Hanseatic League, A.D. 1241—Corporate seals—Sandwich—Poole—Dover—Faversham—Stanhope,vice-admiral of Suffolk—Dutiesof the Cinque Ports—Increased privileges to foreignmerchants—Letters of marque first issued—Law for the recovery ofdebts, and adjustment of average—Shipping of Scotland, A.D. 1249—Extremelyliberal Navigation Act—Chief ports of England andextent of its shipping and commerce—Edward II., A.D. 1307-1327—EdwardIII., A.D. 1326-7-1377—Extension of English commerce—Thediscovery of coal—First complete roll of the English fleet, A.D.1347—Quota of different ports—Pay of soldiers, sailors, &c.—Warrenewed, A.D. 1354—Death of Edward III., A.D. 1377—State of themerchant navy during his reign—Loss sustained by war, and encouragementafforded thereby to foreign nations—Rapid increase ofthe trade of Flanders—Trade between Italy and Flanders—Commercialimportance of Bruges and Antwerp—Wealth of Flanders,and extent of its manufactures and commerce—Special privileges toher merchants—Progress of the Hanseatic League, and its system ofbusiness: its power too frequently abused | [373]-[422] |
| CHAPTER XIII. | |
| Treaties with Spain and the merchants of Portugal—Early claim of theright of search—Restrictive laws against the English, and in favourof foreign traders—Accession of Richard II., A.D. 1377—Character ofthe imports from Italy—Sudden change of policy—First NavigationAct, A.D. 1381—A rage for legislation—Relaxation of the NavigationAct, A.D. 1382-8—Free issue of letters of marque; and ofcommissions for privateering—Special tax for the support of theNavy, A.D. 1377—Superiority of English seamen—Their intrepidityand skill—Chaucer’s description of the seamen of his time—HenryIV., A.D. 1399-1413—Disputes between the Hanse and theEnglish merchants—Agreement for guarding the English coasts—HenryV., A.D. 1413: his liberal policy, and ambition—The extentof his fleet—Size and splendour of the royal ships—Prologue of the“Dominion of the Sea”—England first formally claims dominionof the sea, about A.D. 1416—Prerogatives conferred thereby—Firstaccounts of revenue and expenditure, A.D. 1421—Law for the admeasurementof ships and coal barges—Henry VI. crowded, A.D.1422—Marauding expedition of the Earl of Warwick—Distressamong shipowners not royal favourites, A.D. 1461—Fresh legislativeenactments—First “sliding scale” applied to the importation ofcorn—Relaxation of the laws by means of treaties, A.D. 1467—Treatiesof reciprocity—Extension of distant maritime commerce,A.D. 1485—First English consul in the Mediterranean, A.D. 1490—Theadvantages derived from reciprocal intercourse | [423]-[461] |
| CHAPTER XIV. | |
| Early efforts of France to restore the civilization of Europe—Charlemagne,A.D. 771-814—Protection against pirates—Efforts of Veniceto suppress piracy—Rise of Marseilles—Monopoly in shippingtrade—Customs on shipping—Spain; its early commercial importance—Superiorinfluence of the Venetians, which was invariablyused to their own advantage—Participation of Genoaand Pisa in the profits derived from the Crusades—Venice claimsthe dominion of the Adriatic, A.D. 1159—Annual ceremony of espousingthe Adriatic—Bucentaur state barge—Form of espousal—Theprogress and commercial policy of Venice—Variable characterof her laws, A.D. 1272; which were protective generally, especiallyas regards her ships—Official exposition of the trade of Venice—Herships and dockyards—Merchant galleys—Their greatest size—Contractfor the construction of vessels—Great variety of classes—TheGondola—The Tarida—The Zelander—The Huissier—The Cat—TheSaitie—The Galliot, &c.—The Galeass—The Galleon—The Buzo—Governmentmerchant galleys—How engaged, equipped, andmanned—Nobles’ sons taken on board—Capacity of these vessels—Crew,and regulations on board—Value of their cargoes—Despatchboats—Consuls; their establishment, duties and emoluments—Ancientships’ consuls; their duties—The Cartel—Conditions of thecontract—Restraints upon seamen—Extraordinary display on thedeparture of any important expedition—The reception of the commander,and his plan of inspection—Signal to depart—Adaptationof merchant vessels to the purposes of war—Regulations at sea—Stringentrules to regulate the loading of vessels | [462]-[503] |
| CHAPTER XV. | |
| Prohibition to trade with infidels—Its futility—Commercial policy ofthe Italian republics—Genoa—Genoese fleets and treaties with theVenetians—The Genoese restore the Greek dynasty, and secure amore permanent footing at Constantinople—Galata—Kaffa—Genoesevessels—Details of contract with the ship-builders—Napier’s descriptionof a large Genoese ship of the fifteenth century—Evidentmistakes in the account—First great improvement in the Genoeseships—Genoese carrack—Their corsairs and pirates—The most daringof the pirates; their terrible fate—Corsairs—Bologna and Ancona—Importanceof Pisa—Her trade with the Saracens, about A.D. 1100;and ships—Her first great misfortune—Mode of conducting hertrade—Florence—The Florentines ship goods from a port of Pisa—Saleand transfer of Leghorn, A.D. 1421—First expeditions to Egypt,Constantinople, and Majorca—Freedom of commercial intercourseamongst the Florentines—Their frugality, contrasted with their magnificentpublic displays—Duties and powers of the board of the “sixconsuls of the sea”—Their public vessels, and the trade in whichthey were employed—Consular agents—Extent of the Florentinecommerce, and cause of its decline—The smaller states—Decorationsand traditionary emblems of ships—Signals—Manners and customsof seamen—Their legends—Punishments for gambling and swearing—Superstitions—Mannersand morals, A.D. 1420—General severityof punishments—Impaling, flogging, &c.—Branding | [504]-[546] |
| CHAPTER XVI. | |
| Spain and Portugal—Importance of their commerce in ancient times;and its decline during the Middle Ages—Trade with the coasts ofAfrica—The maritime discoveries of the Portuguese—Expeditionsalong the West Coast of Africa by order of Prince Henry—Discoveryof Madeira, A.D. 1418—Capes Boyador and Blanco, A.D. 1441—CapeVerde Islands, A.D. 1446, and Azores, A.D. 1449—Equator crossed,A.D. 1471—John II. of Portugal—First attempt to reach India bythe Cape of Good Hope, A.D. 1487—Ancient dread of the Atlantic—ChristopherColumbus—His ideas of the form of the earth, and lovefor maritime discovery—His visit to Lisbon, and treatment by thePortuguese—His formal proposal in 1480 to the crown of Portugal,which is referred to a learned junto, who ridicule his idea—Heleaves Lisbon, A.D. 1484; and visits Spain, A.D. 1485—His kindreception by the prior of the convent of La Rabida—First interviewwith the sovereigns of Spain—Its result—The ridicule he endured—Evidencesof an inhabited country to the West of Europe—Ordersgiven by Ferdinand to provide Columbus with the vessels and storesnecessary for his voyage to the West—Conditions signed 17th April,1492—Vessels at last provided for the expedition—Their size andcharacter—Smallness of the expedition—Its departure, 3rd August,1492—Arrival at the Canary Islands—Great fear and discontentamong the crews—Matters become serious—Contemplated mutiny—Landdiscovered 12th October, A.D. 1492—Columbus takes possessionof the island of Guanahani in the name of Spain—The first impressionsof the natives on Columbus | [547]-[581] |
| CHAPTER XVII. | |
| The state of the West India Islands when discovered—Wreck of oneof the vessels of the expedition—A colony established—Columbussets sail for Spain, 4th January, 1493—Arrives at St. Mary’s, 18thFebruary, and in the Tagus a few days afterwards—Re-enters, withhis ship, the harbour of Palos, 15th March—Great rejoicings—Heproceeds to Seville and Barcelona—Orders for a fresh expedition—Itsextent, and departure, 25th Sept., 1493—Reaches Dominica, 2nd Nov.,1493, and Santa Cruz, 14th Nov.—Arrives at Hayti, 22nd Nov.—Foundsa fresh colony at Hispaniola or Hayti—Sufferings of thecolonists, and disappointment of Columbus—His sanguine expectationsfor the future—Threatened mutiny among the colonists—Columbusproceeds on further explorations—Discovery of the islandof Jamaica—Surveys Cuba, and returns to Isabella—Arrival ofBartholomew Columbus—Intrigues at home—Commission of inquirydespatched to Hayti—Columbus sets sail for Europe, 10th March,1496—Arrives at Cadiz, 11th June, 1496—Re-visits the West, May1498—Reaches Trinidad, 31st July—Discovers Tobago, Granada, andother islands, reaching Hispaniola, 19th August—Finds everythingin disorder—Makes a tour of inspection, but is arrested, and sent aprisoner to Spain—Arrives at Cadiz, Nov. 1500, and is restored to theroyal favour—A fleet sails for the colony with Ovando, Feb. 1502,and two months afterwards (9th May) Columbus follows, and reachesSt. Domingo, 29th June—Discovers the island of Guanaga 30th July—Tradingcanoe—Her cargo—Prosecutes his researches to the South—ReachesCape Honduras—Discovers and explores the Mosquitocoast—Puerto Bello—Forms a settlement on the river Belem,6th Feb., 1503—Anchors at Jamaica, June 1503, and Dominica,13th August of that year—Sails for Spain, 12th September, which hereaches 7th Nov., 1504—His sufferings and death, 20th May, 1506. | [582]-[620] |
| APPENDICES. | |
| PAGE | |
| Appendix No. 1 | [625] |
| Appendix No. 2 | [628] |
| Appendix No. 3 | [629] |
| Appendix No. 4 | [629] |
| Appendix No. 5 | [632] |
| Appendix No. 6 | [634] |
| Appendix No. 7 | [636] |
| Appendix No. 8 | [642] |
| Appendix No. 9 | [650] |
| Appendix No. 10 | [652] |
| Appendix No. 11 | [653] |
| Appendix No. 12 | [653] |
| Appendix No. 13 | [654] |
| Index | [657] |
INTRODUCTORY.
Introductory—The first attempt to float, by means of a hollowed log and raft—The Ark—Boats of skin—Earliest boats or ships—Their form—Mode of construction—Names of ships—Decorations—Launching, &c.—Master—Mate—Boatswain—St. Paul’s ship—Rig and sails—Undergirders—Anchors and cables—Decks—Nautical instruments—Mariner’s compass—Speed of ancient ships.
Introductory.