During the past four years there has been conducted, in the Harvard Physiological Laboratory, a series of investigations concerned with the bodily changes which occur in conjunction with pain, hunger and the major emotions. A group of remarkable alterations in the bodily economy have been discovered, all of which can reasonably be regarded as responses that are nicely adapted to the individual’s welfare and preservation. Because these physiological adaptations are interesting both in themselves and in their interpretation, not only to physiologists and psychologists, but to others as well, it has seemed worth while to gather together in convenient form the original accounts of the experiments, which have been published in various American medical and physiological journals. I have, however, attempted to arrange the results and discussions in an orderly and consecutive manner, and I have tried also to eliminate or incidentally to explain the technical terms, so that the exposition will be easily understood by any intelligent reader even though not trained in the medical sciences.
My first interest in the conditions attending pain, hunger and strong emotional states was stimulated during the course of a previous series of researches on the motor activities of the alimentary canal. A summary of these researches appeared in 1911, under the title, “The Mechanical Factors of Digestion.” The studies recorded in the present volume may be regarded as a natural sequence of observations on the influence of emotional states on the digestive process, which were reported in that volume.
W. B. Cannon.
CONTENTS
| CHAPTER I | |
| PAGES | |
| THE EFFECT OF THE EMOTIONS ON DIGESTION | |
| Emotions favorable to normal secretion of the digestive juices—Emotions unfavorable to normal secretion of the digestive juices—Emotions favorable and unfavorable to contractions of the stomach and intestines—The disturbing effect of pain on digestion | [1]–21 |
| CHAPTER II | |
| THE GENERAL ORGANIZATION OF THE VISCERAL NERVES CONCERNED IN EMOTIONS | |
| The outlying neurones—The three divisions of the outlying neurones—The extensive distribution of neurones of the “sympathetic” or thoracico-lumbar division and their arrangement for diffuse action—The arrangement of neurones of the cranial and sacral divisions for specific action—The cranial division a conserver of bodily resources—The sacral division a group of mechanisms for emptying—The sympathetic division antagonistic to both the cranial and the sacral—Neurones of the sympathetic division and adrenal secretion have the same action | [22]–39 |
| CHAPTER III | |
| METHODS OF DEMONSTRATING ADRENAL SECRETION AND ITS NERVOUS CONTROL | |
| The evidence that splanchnic stimulation induces adrenal secretion—The question of adrenal secretion in emotional excitement—The method of securing blood from near the adrenal veins—The method of testing the blood for adrenin | [40]–51 |
| CHAPTER IV | |
| ADRENAL SECRETION IN STRONG EMOTIONS AND PAIN | |
| The evidence that adrenal secretion is increased in emotional excitement—The evidence that adrenal secretion is increased by “painful” stimulation—Confirmation of our results by other observers | [52]–65 |
| CHAPTER V | |
| THE INCREASE OF BLOOD SUGAR IN PAIN AND GREAT EMOTION | |
| Glycosuria from pain—Emotional glycosuria—The rôle of the adrenal glands in emotional glycosuria | [66]–80 |
| CHAPTER VI | |
| IMPROVED CONTRACTION OF FATIGUED MUSCLE AFTER SPLANCHNIC STIMULATION OF THE ADRENAL GLAND | |
| The nerve-muscle preparation—The splanchnic preparation—The effects of splanchnic stimulation on the contraction of fatigued muscle—The first rise in the muscle record—The prolonged rise in the muscle record—The two factors: arterial pressure and adrenal secretion | [81]–94 |
| CHAPTER VII | |
| THE EFFECTS ON CONTRACTION OF FATIGUED MUSCLE OF VARYING THE ARTERIAL BLOOD PRESSURE | |
| The effect of increasing arterial pressure—The effect of decreasing arterial pressure—An explanation of the effects of varying the arterial pressure—The value of increased arterial pressure in pain and strong emotion | [95]–109 |
| CHAPTER VIII | |
| THE SPECIFIC RÔLE OF ADRENIN IN COUNTERACTING THE EFFECTS OF FATIGUE | |
| Variations of the threshold stimulus as a measure of irritability—The method of determining the threshold stimulus—The lessening of neuro-muscular irritability by fatigue—The slow restoration of fatigued muscle to normal irritability by rest—The quick restoration of fatigued muscle to normal irritability by adrenin—The evidence that the restorative action of adrenin is specific—The point of action of adrenin in muscle | [110]–134 |
| CHAPTER IX | |
| THE HASTENING OF THE COAGULATION OF BLOOD BY ADRENIN | |
| The graphic method of measuring the coagulation time—The effects of subcutaneous injections of adrenin—The effects of intravenous injections—The hastening of coagulation by adrenin not a direct effect on the blood | [135]–160 |
| CHAPTER X | |
| THE HASTENING OF COAGULATION OF BLOOD IN PAIN AND GREAT EMOTION | |
| Coagulation hastened by splanchnic stimulation—Coagulation not hastened by splanchnic stimulation if the adrenal glands are absent—Coagulation hastened by “painful” stimulation—Coagulation hastened in emotional excitement | [161]–183 |
| CHAPTER XI | |
| THE UTILITY OF THE BODILY CHANGES IN PAIN AND GREAT EMOTION | |
| The reflex nature of bodily responses in pain and the major emotions, and the useful character of reflexes—The utility of the increased blood sugar as a source of muscular energy—The utility of increased adrenin in the blood as an antidote to the effects of fatigue—The question whether adrenin normally secreted inhibits the use of sugar in the body—The vascular changes produced by adrenin favorable to supreme muscular exertion—The changes in respiratory function also favorable to great effort—The effects produced in asphyxia similar to those produced in pain and excitement—The utility of rapid coagulation in preventing loss of blood | [184]–214 |
| CHAPTER XII | |
| THE ENERGIZING INFLUENCE OF EMOTIONAL EXCITEMENT | |
| “Reservoirs of power”—The excitements and energies of competitive sports—Frenzy and endurance in ceremonial and other dances—The fierce emotions and struggles of battle—The stimulating influence of witnesses and of music—The feeling of power | [215]–231 |
| CHAPTER XIII | |
| THE NATURE OF HUNGER | |
| Appetite and hunger—The sensation of hunger—The theory that hunger is a general sensation—Weakness of the assumptions underlying the theory that hunger is a general sensation—Body need may exist without hunger—The theory that hunger is of general origin does not explain the quick onset and the periodicity of the sensation—The theory that hunger is of general origin does not explain the local reference—Hunger not due to emptiness of the stomach—Hunger not due to hydrochloric acid in the empty stomach—Hunger not due to turgescence of the gastric mucous membrane—Hunger the result of contractions—The “empty” stomach and intestines contract—Observations suggesting that contractions cause hunger—The concomitance of contractions and hunger in man | [232]–266 |
| CHAPTER XIV | |
| THE INTERRELATIONS OF EMOTIONS | |
| Antagonism between emotions expressed in the sympathetic and in the cranial divisions of the autonomic system—Antagonism between emotions expressed in the sympathetic and in the sacral divisions of the autonomic system—The function of hunger—The similarity of visceral effects in different strong emotions and suggestions as to its psychological significance | [267]–284 |
| CHAPTER XV | |
| ALTERNATIVE SATISFACTIONS FOR THE FIGHTING EMOTIONS | |
| Support for the militarist estimate of the strength of the fighting emotions and instincts—Growing opposition to the fighting emotions and instincts as displayed in war—The desirability of preserving the martial virtues—Moral substitutes for warfare—Physical substitutes for warfare—The significance of international athletic competitions | [285]–301 |
| A LIST OF PUBLISHED RESEARCHES FROM THE PHYSIOLOGICAL LABORATORY IN HARVARD UNIVERSITY | [302]–303 |
| INDEX | [305] |
LIST OF ILLUSTRATIONS
| Figure | Page | |
|---|---|---|
| 1. | Diagram of the more important distributions of the autonomic nervous system | [25] |
| 2. | Diagram of the arrangements for recording contractions of the intestinal muscle | [49] |
| 3. | Intestinal muscle beating in inactive blood | [53] |
| 4. | Alternate application of “excited” blood and “quiet” blood, from the same animal, to intestinal muscle initially beating in Ringer’s solution | [55] |
| 5. | The effect of prolonging the excitement | 55 |
| 6. | Failure of the cava blood to produce inhibition when excitement has occurred after removal of the adrenal glands | [57] |
| 7. | Effect of adding adrenin to formerly inactive blood | [58] |
| 8. | The effect of bubbling oxygen through active blood | [59] |
| 9. | Intestinal muscle beating in normal vena cava blood | [62] |
| 10. | The shielded electrodes used in stimulating the splanchnic nerves | [87] |
| 11. | Contraction of the tibialis anticus and stimulation of the left splanchnic nerves | [89] |
| 12. | Arterial blood pressure with membrane manometer, contractions of tibialis anticus, and splanchnic stimulation | [91] |
| 13–17. | Effect of varying arterial blood pressure upon muscular contraction over time | [98]–104 |
| 18. | Threshold stimulus of muscles during an experiment | [116] |
| 19. | Threshold stimulus of muscles during an experiment | [122] |
| 20. | Threshold stimulus of muscles during an experiment | [124] |
| 21. | Effect of adrenin injection upon blood pressure and contractions of the tibialis anticus muscle | [128] |
| 22. | Effect of amyl nitrite injection upon blood pressure and contractions of the tibialis anticus muscle | [128] |
| 23. | Effect of adrenin injection upon blood pressure and contractions of the tibialis anticus muscle when denervated | [131] |
| 24. | Diagram of the graphic coagulometer | [139] |
| 25. | Record of five successive tests of coagulation | [145] |
| 26. | Shortening of coagulation time after injection of adrenin | [151] |
| 27. | Differing effects upon the coagulation time of slow and rapid injections of adrenin | [153] |
| 28. | Persistent shortening of the coagulation time after injection of adrenin when brain and upper cord pithed | [154] |
| 29. | Shortening of coagulation time after stimulation of the left splanchnic nerves | [163] |
| 30. | Shortening of coagulation time after stimulation of the left splanchnic nerves | [164] |
| 31. | Results of stimulating the left splanchnic nerves after removal of the left adrenal gland; and of stimulating the right splanchnic nerves with right adrenal gland present | [169] |
| 32. | Three shortenings of coagulation time after stimulation of the left sciatic nerve | [174] |
| 33. | Shortening of coagulation time during an operation under light anesthesia | [175] |
| 34. | Record of rapid clotting after emotional excitement | [180] |
| 35. | Rapid clotting after emotional excitement, with slowing of the process when the splanchnic nerves were cut in the thorax | [182] |
| 36. | Adrenal secretion produced by asphyxia | [208] |
| 37. | Intragastric pressure, respiration and report of hunger pangs against time | [257] |
| 38. | The same conditions as in Fig. 37 | [259] |
| 39. | Compression of thin rubber bag in the lower esophagus, and report of hunger pangs against time | [260] |
BODILY CHANGES IN PAIN, HUNGER, FEAR AND RAGE
CHAPTER I
THE EFFECT OF THE EMOTIONS ON DIGESTION