A church dictionary

by Walter Farquhar Hook

The manner of observing Lent, among those who were piously disposed to observe it, was to abstain from all food till evening. Whence it is natural to conclude, that the pretence of keeping Lent only by a change of diet from flesh to fish, is but a mock fast, and an innovation utterly unknown to the ancients, whose Lent fast was a strict and rigorous abstinence from all food till the evening. Their refreshment was only a supper, and then it was indifferent whether it was flesh, or any other food, provided it was used with sobriety and moderation. But there was no general rule about this matter, as appears from the story which Sozomen tells of Spiridion, bishop of Trimithus in Cyprus: that a stranger once happening to call upon him in Lent, he, having nothing in his house but a piece of pork, ordered that to be dressed and set before him: but the stranger refusing to eat flesh, saying he was a Christian; Spiridion replied, For that very reason thou oughtest not to refuse it; for the word of God has pronounced all things clean to them that are clean.

Lent was thought the proper season for exercising more abundantly all sorts of charity. Thus what they spared from their own bodies, by abridging them of a meal, was usually given to the poor. They likewise employed their vacant hours in visiting the sick and imprisoned, in entertaining strangers, and reconciling differences. The imperial laws forbade all prosecution of men in criminal actions, which might bring them to corporal punishment and torture, during this whole season. Lent was a time of more than ordinary strictness and devotion; and therefore, in many of the great churches, they had religious assemblies for prayer and preaching every day. They had also frequent communions at this time, at least on every sabbath and Lord’s day. All public games and stage-plays were prohibited at this season; as also the celebration of all festivals, birthdays, and marriages, as unsuitable to the present occasion.

These were the common rules observed in keeping the Lent fast, when it was come to the length of forty days. But there was one week, called the Hebdomas magna, or the Great Week before Easter, which they observed with a greater strictness and solemnity than all the rest. This is usually called the Passion Week, because it was the week in which our Saviour suffered. (See Passion Week.)

The Christians of the Greek Church observe four Lents. The first commences on the fifteenth of November, or forty days before Christmas. The second is our Lent, which immediately precedes Easter. The third begins the week after Whitsunday, and continues till the festival of St. Peter and St. Paul. The number of days therefore comprised in the Lent is not settled and determined, but they are more or less, according as Whitsunday falls sooner or later. Their fourth Lent commences the first of August, and lasts no longer than till the fifteenth. These Lents are observed with great strictness and austerity. On Saturdays and Sundays they indulge themselves in drinking wine and using oil, which are prohibited on other days.

Lent was first commanded to be observed, in England, by Ercombert, seventh king of Kent (A. D. 640–660). No meat was, formerly, to be eaten in Lent, but by licence, under certain penalties. And butchers were not to kill flesh in Lent, except for victualling of ships, &c.—Compiled from various authorities.

LESSONS, among ecclesiastical writers, are portions of the Holy Scriptures read in churches at the time of Divine service. In the ancient Church, reading the Scriptures was one part of the service of the catechumens, at which all persons were allowed to be present in order to obtain instruction.

The lessons in the unreformed offices are in general very short. Nine lessons are appointed to be read at matins on Sundays, and three on every week-day, besides a chapter, or capitular, at each of the six daily services. But of the nine Sunday lessons, only three are from Scripture, the six others being extracts from homilies or martyrologies. At matins only is there anything like a continuous lesson read. The capitula or lectioner verses at the other services, are each nothing more than one verse (very rarely two short verses) from Scripture, and these are seldom varied. As to the matin lessons, they do not on an average consist of more than three verses each: for though the three lessons are generally in sequence, the sense is interrupted by the interposition between each lesson of a responsory, versicles, and the Gloria Patri, so that edification is hereby effectually hindered, as is remarked in the Preface to our Common Prayer, “Concerning the Service of the Church.”—Jebb.

The Church of England in the appointment of lessons observes two different courses; one for ordinary days, and another for holy-days. On ordinary days she begins the course of her first lessons with the book of Genesis, in the beginning of her civil year, January; and proceeds regularly through the greatest part of the Bible. Isaiah alone is not read in the order in which it stands; our Church reserving the evangelical prophet, in conformity to primitive usage, to be read in the season of Advent. Before Isaiah, and after the other canonical Scriptures, the Church substitutes some apocryphal lessons in the room of the canonical Scripture that has been omitted.

But though the most part of the Bible is read through every year once, yet some chapters of particular books, and three whole books, are left unread for reasons that sufficiently appear.

Of Genesis, (containing 50 chapters,) 10, 11, and 36 are not read; 10 and 36, evidently, because they contain little else than genealogies. The first nine verses of chapter 11, giving an account of a most extraordinary display of the Divine power, the confusion of tongues at Babel, is received into the table of lessons for holy days, viz. Monday in Whitsun week. Of Exodus, (40 chapters,) the first 24 chapters are read, excepting some repetitions and genealogies in the latter part of chapter 6. From chapter 25 to the end of the book, there is little that does not relate to the ark, and other local and temporary particulars, except chapters 32, 33, 34, which are accordingly read. Chapters 35 and 40 are retained in the Scottish calendar. Of Leviticus, (27 chapters,) as it treats chiefly of Jewish sacrifices, and ceremonial observances of clean and unclean beasts and birds, lepers, &c., only 4 chapters are read, viz. the 18, 19, 20, and 26. In the Scottish calendar the 9, 12, 16, 21, 23, 24, 25, and 27 are retained. Of Numbers, (36 chapters,) the first 10 chapters are omitted, which relate to the men of war, the Levites, their services and offerings. Chapters 15, 18, 19, 26, 28, 29, 33, and 34 are also omitted, as containing similar subjects; the Scottish liturgy retains chapters 5, 6, 8, 9, 10, and 15. All Deuteronomy (34 chapters) is read, except chapter 23, which the Scottish calendar retains, while it rejects chapter 14. In Joshua, (24 chapters,) the history contained from chapter 11 to 22, treating of the destruction of several kings, and the division of the land of Canaan, is not read; but chapters 14, 20, and 22 are retained in the Scottish calendar. The whole of the book of Judges is read, (21 chapters,) and also that of Ruth (4 chapters). So are also the two books of Samuel (the first, “otherwise called the First Book of the Kings,” containing 31 chapters; and the second, “otherwise called the Second Book of the Kings,” containing 24 chapters). Also the two Books of Kings (the first, “commonly called the Third Book of the Kings,” containing 22 chapters, and the second, “commonly called the Fourth Book of the Kings,” containing 25 chapters). Both the Books of Chronicles (the first containing 29 chapters, and the second 36 chapters) are entirely omitted, probably because they consist of the details of facts which are related in the preceding historical books. In the Scottish calendar, 1 Chronicles, chap. 10, is to be read instead of the apocryphal lessons, at morning prayer on November 23; and then from 13 to 22, with 28, 29, and 30. Of 2 Chronicles, 1, 2, 5, 6, &c. to 36, are read, extending to evening prayer, on December 16. Of Ezra, (10 chapters,) chapter 2, being a catalogue of names, is omitted, as are also chapters 8 and 10, partly for the same reason. In the Scottish calendar, chapter 7 is omitted, and 8 and 10 retained. Of Nehemiah, (13 chapters,) 3, 7, 11, and 12, consisting of the names of the builders of the wall, genealogies, &c., are omitted. Of Esther, (10 chapters,) the 10th, containing only three verses, is omitted, probably on that account. In the Scottish calendar chapters 9 and 10 make one lesson; a rare occurrence in that calendar, but frequent in ours. The whole of the Book of Job (consisting of 42 chapters) is read. The Book of Psalms (150) is passed over as being otherwise used. Of Proverbs, (31 chapters,) chapter 30, the Prayer of Agur, &c., is alone omitted; but the Scottish calendar retains it. The book of Ecclesiastes (12 chapters) is read throughout; but the whole of the Song of Solomon (8 chapters) is omitted; as containing mystical descriptions not likely to edify. The Jews did not permit this book to be read by any one under thirty years of age. The whole Book of Isaiah is read, (66 chapters,) but not in its regular place, as before remarked; the 1st chapter being read on the 23rd of November, and the 66th concluding the year. In the Scottish calendar it retains its proper place. The whole of Jeremiah (52 chapters) with the Lamentations of Jeremiah (5 chapters) are read throughout. Of Ezekiel (48 chapters) only 9 are read, viz. 2, 3, 6, 7, 13, 14, 18, 33, and 34. For the omission of so large a portion may be assigned the reason given for the omission of almost the whole of the Revelation. It consists in a great degree of visions, many of which are very obscure even to the most learned. The Scottish liturgy retains nearly the whole book. The remainder of the Old Testament is read through regularly, viz. Daniel, 12 chapters; Hosea, 14 chapters; Joel, 3 chapters; Amos, 9 chapters; Obadiah, 1 chapter; Jonah, 4 chapters; Micah, 7 chapters; Nahum, 3 chapters; Habakkuk, 3 chapters; Zephaniah, 3 chapters; Haggai, 2 chapters; Zechariah, 14 chapters; Malachi, 4 chapters.