The Origin of Vertebrates

by Walter Holbrook Gaskell

The argument, then, from geology, like that from comparative anatomy and from the consideration of the importance of the central nervous system in the upward development of the animal race, not only points directly to the arthropod group as the ancestor of the vertebrate, but also to a distinct ancient type of arthropod, the Palæostracan, the only living example of which is the King-Crab or Limulus; while the nearest approach to the trilobite group among living arthropods are Branchipus and Apus. It follows, therefore, that for the following up of this clue, Limulus especially must be taken into consideration, while Branchipus and Apus are always to be kept in mind.

Ammocœtes rather than Amphioxus is the Best Subject for Investigation.

It is not, however, Limulus that must be investigated in the first instance, but the vertebrate itself; for it can never be insisted on too often that in the vertebrate itself its past history will be found, but that Limulus cannot reveal the future of its race. What vertebrate must be chosen for investigation? Reasons have been given why our attention should be fixed upon the king-crab rather than on the lobster on the invertebrate side; what is the most likely animal on the vertebrate side?

From the evidence already given it is manifest that the earliest mammal belonged to the lowest group of mammals; that the birds on their first appearance presented reptilian characteristics, that the earliest reptiles belonged to a low type of reptile, that the amphibians at their first appearance were nearer in type to the fishes than were the later forms. As each of these groups advances in number and power, specialization takes place in it, and the latest developed members become further and further removed in type from the earliest. So also it must have been with the origin of fishes: here too, in the quest for information as to the structure and nature of the first-formed fishes, we must look to the lowest rather than to the highest living members of the group.

The lowest fish-like animal at present living is Amphioxus, and on this ground it is argued that the original vertebrate must have approached in organization to that of Amphioxus; it is upon the comparison between the structure of Amphioxus and that of Balanoglossus, that the theory of the origin of vertebrates from forms like the latter animal is based. For my own part, I think that in the first instance, at all events, Amphioxus should be put on one side, although of course its structure must always be kept in mind, for the following reasons:—

Amphioxus, like the tunicates, does not possess the characteristics of other vertebrates. In all vertebrates above these forms the great characteristic is a well-defined brain-region from which arise nerves to organs of special sense, the eyes and nose. In Amphioxus no eyes exist, for the pigmented spot at the anterior extremity of the brain-region is no eye but only a mass of pigment, and the so-called olfactory pit is a very rudimentary and inferior organ of smell. In connection with the nearly complete absence of these two most important sense-organs, the most important part of the central nervous system, the region corresponding to the cerebral hemispheres, is also nearly completely absent.

Now, the history of the evolution of the central nervous system in the animal race points directly to its formation as a concentrated mass of nervous material at the anterior extremity of the body, in consequence of the formation of special olfactory and visual organs at that extremity. As already stated, the concentration of nervous material around the mouth as an oral ring was its beginning. In connection with this there arose special sense-organs for the guidance of the animal to its food which took the form of olfactory and optic organs. With the shifting from the radial to the elongated form these sense-organs remained at the anterior or mouth-end of the animal, and owing to their immense importance in the struggle for existence, that part of the central nervous system with which they were connected developed more than any other part, became the leader to which the rest of the nervous system was subservient, and from that time onwards the development of the brain-region was inevitably associated with the upward progress of animal life.

To those who believe in Evolution and the Darwinian theory of the survival of the fittest, it is simply inconceivable that a soft-bodied animal living in the mud, blind, with a rudimentary brain and rudimentary olfactory organs, such as is postulated when we think of Balanoglossus and Amphioxus, should hold its own and come victorious out of the struggle for existence at a time when the sea was peopled with powerful predaceous scorpion- and crab-like armour-plated animals possessing a well-developed brain, good eyes and olfactory organs, and powerful means of locomotion. Wherever in the scale of animal development Amphioxus may ultimately be placed, it cannot be looked upon as the type of the earliest formed fishes such as appeared in Silurian times.

The next lowest group of living fishes is the Marsipobranchii which include the lampreys and hag-fishes. To these naturally we must turn for a clue as to the organization of the earliest fish, for here we find all the characteristics of the vertebrates represented: a well-formed brain-region, well-developed eyes and nose, cranial nerves directly comparable with those of other vertebrates, and even the commencement of vertebræ.

Among these forms the lamprey is by far the best for investigation, not only because it is easily obtainable in large quantities, but especially because it passes a large portion of its existence in a larval condition, from which it emerges into the adult state by a wonderful process of transformation, comparable in extent with the transformation of the larval caterpillar into the adult imago. So long does the lamprey live in this free larval condition, and so different is it in the adult stage, that the older anatomists considered that the two states were really different species, and gave the name of Ammocœtes branchialis to the larval stage, while the adult form was called Petromyzon planeri, or Petromyzon fluviatilis.