The Origin of Vertebrates

by Walter Holbrook Gaskell

Let us, then, compare all the organs of such a low vertebrate as Ammocœtes with those of an arthropod of the ancient type.

Life History of the Lamprey—not a Degenerate Animal.

The striking peculiarity of the lamprey is its life-history. It lives in fresh water, spending a large portion of its life in the mud during the period of its larval existence: then comes a somewhat sudden transformation-stage, characterized, as in the lepidopterous larva, by a process of histolysis, by which many of the larval tissues are destroyed and new ones formed, with the result that the larval lamprey, or Ammocœtes, is transformed into the adult lamprey, or Petromyzon. This transformation takes place in August, at all events in the neighbourhood of Cambridge, and later in the year the transformed lamprey migrates to the sea, grows in size and maturity, and returns to the river the following spring up to its spawning beds, where it spawns and forthwith dies. How long it lives in the Ammocœtes stage is unknown; I myself have kept some without transformation for four years, and probably they live in the rivers longer than that before they change from their larval state. It is absolutely certain that very much the longest part of the animal's life is spent in the larval stage, and that with the maturity of the sexual organs and the production of the fertilized ova the life of the individual ends.

Now, the striking point of this transformation is that it produces an animal more nearly comparable with higher vertebrates than is the larval form; in other words, the transformation from larva to adult is in the direction of upward progress, not of degeneration. It is, therefore, inaccurate to speak of the adult lamprey as degenerate from a higher race of fishes represented by its larval form—Ammocœtes. Its transformation does not resemble that of the tunicates, but rather that of the frog, so that, just as in the case of the tadpole, the peculiarities of its larval form may be expected to afford valuable indications of its immediate ancestry. The very peculiarities to which attention must especially be paid are those discarded at transformation, and, as will be seen, these are essentially characteristic of the invertebrate and are not found in the higher vertebrates. In fact, the transformation of the lamprey from the Ammocœtes to the Petromyzon stage may be described as the casting off of many of its ancestral invertebrate characters and the putting on of the characteristics of the vertebrate type. It is this double individuality of the lamprey, together with its long-continued existence in the larval form, which makes Ammocœtes more valuable than any other living vertebrate for the study of the stock from which vertebrates sprang.

Many authorities hold the view that the lamprey, like Amphioxus, must be looked upon as degenerate, and therefore as no more suitable for the investigation of the problem of vertebrate ancestry than is Amphioxus itself. This charge of degeneracy is based on the statement that the lamprey is a parasite, and that the eyes in Ammocœtes are under the skin. The whole supposition of the degeneracy of the Cyclostomata arose because of the prevailing belief of the time that the earliest fishes were elasmobranchs, and therefore gnathostomatous. From such gnathostomatous fishes the cyclostomes were supposed to have descended, having lost their jaws and become suctorial in habit in consequence of their parasitism.

The charge of parasitism is brought against the lamprey because it is said to suck on to fishes and so obtain nutriment. It is, however, undoubtedly a free-swimming fish; and when we see it coming up the rivers in thousands to reach the spawning-beds, and sucking on to the stones on the way in order to anchor itself against the current, or holding on tightly during the actual process of spawning, it does not seem justifiable to base a charge of degeneration upon a parasitic habit, when such so-called habit simply consists in holding on to its prey until its desires are satisfied. If, of course, its suctorial mouth had arisen from an ancestral gnathostomatous mouth, then the argument would have more force.

Dohrn, however, gives absolutely no evidence of a former gnathostomatous condition either in Petromyzon or, in its larval state, Ammocœtes. He simply assumes that the Cyclostomata are degenerated fishes and then proceeds to point out the rudiments of skeleton, etc., which they still possess. Every point that Dohrn makes can be turned round; and, with more probability, it can be argued that the various structures are the commencement of the skeletal and other structures in the higher fishes, and not their degenerated remnants. Compare the life-history of the lamprey and of the tunicate. In the latter case we look upon the animal as a degenerate vertebrate, because the larval stage alone shows vertebrate characteristics; when transformation has taken place, and the adult form is reached, the vertebrate characteristics have vanished, and the animal, instead of reaching a higher grade, has sunk lower in the scale, the central nervous system especially having lost all resemblance to that of the vertebrate. In the former case a transformation also takes place, a marvellous transformation, characterized by two most striking facts. On the one hand, the resulting animal is more like a higher vertebrate, for, by the formation of new cartilages, its cranial skeleton is now comparable with that of the higher forms, and the beginnings of the spinal vertebræ appear; by the increased formation of nervous material, its brain increases in size and complexity, so as to compare more closely with higher vertebrate brains; its eyes become functional, and its branchiæ are so modified, simultaneously with the formation of the new alimentary canal in the cranial region, that they now surround branchial pouches which are directly comparable to those of higher vertebrates. On the other hand, the transformation process is equally characterized by the throwing off of tissues and organs, one and all of which are comparable in structure and function with corresponding structures in the Arthropoda—the thyroid of the Ammocœtes, the tentacles, the muco-cartilage, the tubular muscles, all these structures, so striking in the Ammocœtes stage, are got rid of at transformation. Here is the true clue. Here, in the throwing off of invertebrate characters, and the taking on of a higher vertebrate form, especially a higher brain, not a lower one, Petromyzon proclaims as clearly as is possible that it is not a degenerate elasmobranch, but that it has arisen from Ammocœtes-like ancestors, even though Myxine, Amphioxus, and the tunicates be all stages on the downward grade from those same Ammocœtes-like ancestors.

As to the eyes, they are functional in the adult form and as serviceable as in any fish. There is no sign of degeneracy; it is only possible to speak of a retarded development which lasts through the larval stage.

Comparison of Brain of Ammocœtes with that of an Arthropod.

Seeing that the steady progress of the development of the central nervous system is the most important factor in the evolution of animals, it follows that of all organs of the body, the central nervous system must be most easily comparable with that of the supposed ancestor. I will, therefore, start by comparing the brain of Ammocœtes with that of arthropods, especially of Limulus and of the scorpion-group.