VESALIUS AND THE OVERTHROW OF AUTHORITY IN SCIENCE
Vesalius, although an anatomist, is to be recognized in a broad sense as one of the founders of biology. When one is attempting to investigate animal and plant life, not only must he become acquainted with the external appearance of living organisms, but also must acquire early a knowledge of their structure, without which other facts relating to their lives can not be disclosed. Anatomy, which is the science of the structure of organized beings, is therefore so fundamental that we find ourselves involved in tracing the history of its rise as one part of the story of biology. But it is not enough to know how animals and plants are constructed; we must also know something about the purpose of the structures and of the life that courses through them, and, accordingly, after considering the rise of anatomy, we must take a similar view of its counterpart, physiology.
The great importance of Vesalius in the history of science lies in the fact that he overthrew adherence to authority as the method of ascertaining truth, and substituted therefor observation and reason. Several of his forerunners had tried to accomplish the same end, but they had failed. He was indebted to them as every man is indebted to his forebears, but at the same time we can not fail to see that Vesalius was worthy of the victory. He was more resolute and forceful than any of his predecessors. He was one of those rare spirits who see new truth with clearness, and have the bravery to force their thoughts on an unsympathetic public.
The Beginning of Anatomy.—In order to appreciate his service it is necessary to give a brief account of his predecessors, and of the condition of anatomy in his time. Remembering that anatomy embraces a knowledge of the architecture of all animals and plants, we can, nevertheless, see why in early times its should have had more narrow boundaries. The medical men were the first to take an interest in the structure of the human body, because a knowledge of it is necessary for medicine and surgery. It thus happens that the earliest observations in anatomy were directed toward making known the structure of the human body and that of animals somewhat closely related to man in point of structure. Anatomical studies, therefore, began with the more complex animals instead of the simpler ones, and, later, when comparative anatomy began to be studied, this led to many misunderstandings; since the structure of man became the type to which all others were referred, while, on account of his derivation, his structure presents the greatest modification of the vertebrate type.
It was so difficult in the early days to get an opportunity to study the human body that the pioneer anatomists were obliged to gain their knowledge by dissections of animals, as the dog, and occasionally the monkey. In this way Aristotle and his forerunners learned much about anatomy. About 300 B.C., the dissection of the human body was legalized in the Alexandrian school, the bodies of condemned criminals being devoted to that purpose. But this did not become general even for medical practitioners, and anatomy continued to be studied mainly from brute animals.
Galen.—The anatomist of antiquity who outshines all others was Galen (Claudius Galenus, 130-200 A.D.), who lived some time in Pergamos, and for five years in Rome, during the second century of the Christian era. He was a man of much talent, both as an observer and as a writer. His descriptions were clear and forceful, and for twelve centuries his works exerted the greatest influence of those of all scientific writers. In his writings was gathered all the anatomical knowledge of his predecessors, to which he had added observations of his own. He was a man of originality, but not having the human body for dissection, he erred in expounding its structure "on the faith of observations made on lower animals." He used the right method in arriving at his facts. Huxley says: "No one can read Galen's works without being impressed with the marvelous extent and diversity of his knowledge, and by his clear grasp of those experimental methods by which alone physiology can be advanced."
Anatomy in the Middle Ages.—But now we shall see how the arrest of inquiry already spoken of operated in the field of anatomy. The condition of anatomy in the Middle Ages was the condition of all science in the same period. From its practical importance anatomy had to be taught to medical men, while physics and chemistry, biology and comparative anatomy remained in an undeveloped state. The way in which this science was taught is a feature which characterizes the intellectual life of the Middle Ages. Instead of having anatomy taught by observations, the writings of Galen were expounded from the desk, frequently without demonstrations of any kind. Thus his work came to be set up as the one unfailing authority on anatomical knowledge. This was in accord with the dominant ecclesiastical influence of the time. Reference to authority was the method of the theologians, and by analogy it became the method of all learning. As the Scriptures were accepted as the unfailing guide to spiritual truth, so Galen and other ancient writers were made the guides to scientific truth and thought. The baneful effects of this in stifling inquiry and in reducing knowledge to parrot-like repetition of ancient formulas are so obvious that they need not be especially dwelt upon.
