The Turk and his lost provinces

by William Eleroy Curtis

The different trades are governed by guilds as was formerly the rule throughout Europe. Each guild has a patron saint and a long list of officers, who fix prices and profits, regulate wages, appoint apprentices and decide disputes. The trades are classified and each has its particular locality. Competitors seem to be upon the most friendly terms.

In the center of the old city is a common meeting-place—a coffee-house in the oriental style called the Kiraet-han—a resort for the better class of merchants and artisans, where types of all races may be found. Near by is the beautiful Begova Djamia, the largest and the finest mosque in Europe with the exception of St. Sofia in Constantinople and Selim’s in Adrianople. In the courtyard is the inevitable fountain, in which the worshipers wash their hands before performing their religious duties, for cleanliness is not only next to godliness in the Mohammedan creed, but was declared by the prophet to be “the key of prayer.” In this courtyard is the official measuring stone, exactly the Turkish equivalent for a yard in length, and whenever there is a dispute or discussion as to the accuracy of a merchant’s measurement he is compelled to subject it to the test.

Many injunctions from the prophet make it difficult for a conscientious Moslem to compete with the Greeks, Jews, Italians and Austrians, who are his rivals there. His religious observances take up much valuable time. He goes to worship five times a day whenever the Hodja calls to prayer. So many times must he lay his forehead to the ground, repeating so many verses from the Koran; so many times must he rise to a sitting posture with his hands upon his knees, and with eyes closed repeat the gospel of his religion; and so many times must he arise and recite so many prayers. Not one prayer or position must be omitted or neglected. As a rule the Mohammedans are much more regular and devout in the observance of their spiritual duties than the members of the Christian churches, and no race is so faithful to the teachings of its religion. They told me there, as I have often heard elsewhere, that no matter how cruel, bloodthirsty or treacherous a Turk may be, he will not lie or cheat. I have been frequently advised that I can always trust a Moslem to give me real value for my money, and depend upon his word as to the article he sells me, but when I deal with a Christian or a Jew I must look out for myself. That, however, is a myth, to entertain strangers.

Strangers find great difficulty in distinguishing between the Christians and the Turks in Bosnia, for both wear turbans, embroidered waistcoats, loose open jackets, zouave trousers gathered at the knee, and heelless shoes with toes that turn up like the arms of a crescent, the same that you see in the windows of shops that sell Turkish goods at home. The ordinary European costume is being adopted rapidly by those who wish to be considered up-to-date. The rich families of the middle class buy all their clothing at Vienna or Budapest, and it is difficult to distinguish them from the Austrians. Nevertheless there are little signs by which those familiar with the country can always tell whether a man he meets upon the street is a Mohammedan or a Christian. The peasants adhere most tenaciously to the ancient customs, and by going into the country one can get a much better idea of what Bosnia used to be than in the cities, although the latter are still picturesque and interesting. In Turkish times Christians were compelled to wear a certain costume of dark colors to denote their servile condition, and it was as much as life was worth for anyone to wear green, the color of the prophet. The Turks considered it sacrilege, and the penalty for violating this unwritten law was so terrible that it was seldom broken. Now, however, any man or woman, Christian, Jew or Turk, is allowed to wear whatever pleases the taste and fancy, and you see mixed costumes as often as any, the fez, which was formerly the distinguishing badge of the Mohammedans, being frequently worn by Christians and Jews.

A similar change has been going on among the women. Formerly they were restricted to the harems, as in Turkey, but now they may be seen in the streets and bazaars and even in the fields, where, before the Austrian occupation, it was impossible for them to appear, because of the danger of insult from any passing Turk. They never ventured far from their homes and the protection of their husbands and neighbors. It has never been customary for Turkish women to work in the fields like the Germans and Austrians; but this is all changed, and throughout Bosnia these days their bright costumes illuminate the landscape in every direction. They work side by side with men, as in Hungary. Nowadays, also, many Mohammedan husbands in Bosnia allow their wives and daughters to be treated by Christian doctors when they are ill, notwithstanding the superstition that it is contrary to the will of Allah. Enlightened Mohammedans who have observed the advantages of the social, agricultural and administrative reforms introduced into Bosnia and have reflected thoughtfully upon them are gradually yielding to their better judgment, and, while they will never yield in their attachment to the old faith, are adopting the customs and habits of the western world. The lives of women are thus becoming enlarged. They are being released from the degraded position which they occupy in all Mohammedan countries. The popular impression that the Mohammedan religion denies souls and immortality to women is a fallacy. The Koran teaches the reverse, and admits them to the hope of Paradise; and it is custom rather than a religious injunction that prohibits them from entering mosques at the same time with men. Certain hours are allotted women for prayer in most of the mosques, but some of them they are not allowed to enter.

The Turk is not altogether terrible. He has many admirable traits. There is much to be admired in his religion and in the spirit with which he observes the injunctions of the prophet. The Mohammedans are a curious contradiction. Although it is asserted that ninety out of every one hundred cases in the Turkish courts are settled by bribery, and the official class is absolutely untrustworthy, yet I am informed by those who have had long experience that the word and still more the oath of a Mohammedan may be accepted implicitly wherever it affects members of his own faith. Their religion teaches that those who are guilty of falsehood shall have no part in the next life. In Egypt and in other countries the rule is the same as in Bosnia, that when a suit is being tried between two Moslems, the defendant, if he has justice on his side, will insist that the plaintiff be compelled to testify, feeling confident that he will tell the exact truth, if properly questioned, and admit that he is wrong. Thus it is not because of religion, but in spite of it, that corruption is universal wherever the Turks control.

In Bosnia the Austrians have separate courts for Turkish cases, because it is not perjury for a Mohammedan to swear falsely against a Christian. A different rule and practice is required in the administration of justice where representatives of both religions are involved. They also have courts there for the settlement of trifling differences, in which lawyers are not allowed to appear, because that honorable profession is accused of encouraging litigation for the sake of making fees. Before the Austrian occupation this was a great evil. Almost the entire population were involved one way or another in lawsuits. If a man was dissatisfied in any way with the conduct of his neighbor he would drag him into the courts. About twenty years ago the Austrians decided to put an end to this litigation, and a law was enacted limiting the number of lawyers to sixteen for the entire country. No one can be admitted to practice unless there is a vacancy.

The tenure of land was one of the most difficult questions to deal with, because, under Turkish rule, the larger part of the cultivated area belonged to the government or the ecclesiastics, who were oppressive and extortionate in their treatment of their tenants. Gradually these conditions have been reformed, and, although agriculture is still in a low state of development, the farmers are secure in the possession of their lands and are thus encouraged to improve and cultivate them with care. Eighty-eight per cent of the population are engaged in farming and raising cattle, sheep and swine. Tobacco is a very important crop, and a government monopoly. It may be raised by any farmer under the supervision of the revenue inspectors, who not only measure the acreage planted, but even count the number of plants in order that sales to private individuals may be detected. A considerable proportion of the crop is exported—nearly 2,000 tons in 1901—but the greater part is manufactured into cigarettes in government factories, which not only bring in a handsome revenue, but furnish employment for nearly four thousand women and girls.

The cattle industry is next in importance, there being an average of one steer, one goat, one hog and three sheep per capita of the population. The hides are tanned at home and shipped to Great Britain, France and Austria. They are of the highest grade and bring the best prices. The next important industry is dried prunes, the exports in 1901 amounting to more than $1,500,000.

Beet sugar is now being manufactured by the government, and silk culture is also being introduced. The government gives assistance to the agricultural population in many important ways—by the establishment of schools of instruction, by the introduction of new ideas, by furnishing seeds and sample implements and by other methods. There are several excellent schools of agriculture situated at convenient locations, where the country people may send their sons to study the practical cultivation of the soil, and their daughters to learn how to make butter and cheese, cultivate silk worms and raise poultry and other by-products which materially increase the family income. Experts have been brought from Italy to instruct the natives in the cultivation of silk worms, as the climate and other conditions appear to be unusually favorable for that industry.