| CHAPTER I | |
| The Compilation of Earth History | |
| PAGE | |
| The sources of the history—Subdivisions of geology—The study of earthfeatures and their significance—Tabular recapitulation—Geologicalprocesses not universal—Change, and not stability, the order of nature—Observationalgeology versus speculative philosophy—The scientificattitude and temper—The value of the hypothesis—Heading references | [1] |
| CHAPTER II | |
| The Figure of the Earth | |
| The lithosphere and its envelopes—The evolution of ideas concerning theearth’s figure—The oblateness of the earth—The arrangement ofoceans and continents—The figure toward which the earth is tending—Astronomicalversus geodetic observations—Changes of figure duringcontraction of a spherical body—The earlier figures of the earth—Thecontinents and oceans at the close of the Paleozoic era—Theflooded portions of the present continents—The floors of the hydrosphereand atmosphere—Reading references | [8] |
| CHAPTER III | |
| The Nature of the Materials in the Lithosphere | |
| The rigid quality of our planet—Probable composition of the earth’s core—Theearth a magnet—The chemical constitution of the earth’s surfaceshell—The essential nature of crystals—The lithosphere a complexof interlocking crystals—Some properties of natural crystals,minerals—The alterations of minerals—Reading references | [20] |
| CHAPTER IV | |
| The Rocks of the Earth’s Surface Shell | |
| The processes by which rocks are formed—The marks of origin—Themetamorphic rocks—Characteristic textures of the igneous rocks—Theclassification of rocks—Subdivisions of the sedimentary rocks—Thedifferent deposits of ocean, lake, and river—Special marks oflittoral deposits—The order of deposition during a transgression ofthe sea—The basins of deposition of earlier ages—The deposits of thedeep sea—Reading references | [30] |
| CHAPTER V | |
| Contortions of the Strata within the Zone of Flow | |
| The zones of fracture and flow—Experiments which illustrate the fractureand flow of solid bodies—The arches and troughs of the foldedstrata—The elements of folds—The shapes of rock folds—The overthrustfold—Restoration of mutilated folds—The geological map andsection—Measurement of the thickness of formations—The detectionof plunging folds—The meaning of an unconformity—Reading references | [40] |
| CHAPTER VI | |
| The Architecture of the Fractured Superstructure | |
| The system of the fractures—The space intervals of joints—The displacementsupon joints: faults—Methods of detecting faults—Thebase of the geological map—The field map and the areal geologicalmap—Laboratory models for study of geological maps—The methodof preparing the map—Fold vs. fault topography—Reading references | [55] |
| CHAPTER VII | |
| The Interrupted Character of Earth Movements: Earthquakesand Seaquakes | |
| Nature of earthquake shocks—Seaquakes and seismic sea waves—Thegrander and the lesser earth movements—Changes in the earth’ssurface during earthquakes: faults and fissures—The measure ofdisplacement—Contraction of the earth’s surface during earthquakes—Theplan of an earthquake fault—The block movements of thedisturbed district—The earth blocks adjusted during the Alaskanearthquake of 1899 | [67] |
| CHAPTER VIII | |
| The Interrupted Character of Earth Movements: Earthquakesand Seaquakes (concluded) | |
| Experimental demonstration of earth movements—Derangement of waterflow by earth movement—Sand or mud cones and craterlets—Theearth’s zones of heavy earthquake—The special lines of heavy shock—Seismotectoniclines—The heavy shocks above loose foundations—Constructionin earthquake regions—Reading references | [81] |
| CHAPTER IX | |
| The Rise of Molten Rock to the Earth’s Surface; VolcanicMountains of Exudation | |
| Prevalent misconceptions about volcanoes—Early views concerning volcanicmountains—The birth of volcanoes—Active and extinct volcanoes—Theearth’s volcano belts—Arrangement of volcanic ventsalong fissures, and especially at their intersections—The so-calledfissure eruptions—The composition and the properties of lava—Thethree main types of volcanic mountain—The lava dome—The basalticlava domes of Hawaii—Lava movements within the caldron of Kilauea—Thedraining of the lava caldrons—The outflow of the lava floods | [94] |
| CHAPTER X | |
| The Rise of Molten Rock to the Earth’s Surface; VolcanicMountains of Ejected Materials | |
| The mechanics of crater explosions—Grander volcanic eruptions of cindercones—The eruption of Volcano in 1888—The eruption of Taalvolcano on January 30, 1911—The materials and the structure of cindercones—The profile lines of cinder cones—The composite cone—Thecaldera of composite cones—The eruption of Vesuvius in 1906—Thesequence of events within the chimney—The spine of Pelé—Theaftermath of mud flows—The dissection of volcanoes—Theformation of lava reservoirs—Character profiles—Reading references | [115] |
| CHAPTER XI | |
| The Attack of the Weather | |
| The two contrasted processes of weathering—The rôle of the percolatingwater—Mechanical results of decomposition: spheroidal weathering—Exfoliationor scaling—Dome structure in granite masses—Theprying work of frost—Talus—Soil flow in the continued presence ofthaw water—The splitting wedges of roots and trees—The rock mantleand its shield in the mat of vegetation—Reading references | [149] |
| CHAPTER XII | |
| The Life Histories of Rivers | |
| The intricate pattern of river etchings—The motive power of rivers—Oldland and new land—The earlier aspects of rivers—The meshesof the river network—The upper and lower reaches of a river contrasted—Thebalance between degradation and aggradation—Theaccordance of tributary valleys—The grading of the flood plain—Thecycles of stream meanders—The cut-off of the meander—Meanderscars—River terraces—The delta of the river—The levee—Thesections of delta deposits | [158] |
| CHAPTER XIII | |
| Earth Features shaped by Running Water | |
| The newly incised upland and its sharp salients—The stage of adolescence—Thematurely dissected upland—The Hogarthian line of beauty—Thefinal product of river sculpture: the peneplain—The river crosssections of successive stages—The entrenchment of meanders withrenewed uplift—The valley of the rejuvenated river—The arrest ofstream erosion by the more resistant rocks—The capture of one river byanother—Water and wind gaps—Character profiles—Reading references | [169] |
| CHAPTER XIV | |
| The Travels of the Underground Water | |
| The descent within the unsaturated zone—The trunk channels of descendingwater—The caverns of limestones—Swallow holes and limestonesinks—The sinter deposits—The growth of stalactites—Formationof stalagmites—The Karst and its features—A desert from thedestruction of forests—The ponore and the polje—The return of thewater to the surface—Artesian wells—Hot springs and geysers—Thedeposition of siliceous sinter by plant growth—Reading references | [180] |
| CHAPTER XV | |
| Sun and Wind in the Lands of Infrequent Rains | |
| The law of the desert—The self-registering gauge of past climates—Somecharacteristics of the desert waste—Dry weathering: the red andbrown desert varnish—The mechanical breakdown of the desert rocks—Thenatural sand blast—The dust carried out of the desert | [197] |
| CHAPTER XVI | |
| The Features in Desert Landscapes | |
| The wandering dunes—The forms of dunes—The cloudburst in thedesert—The zone of the dwindling river—Erosion in and about thedesert—Characteristic features of the arid lands—The war of duneand oasis—The origin of the high plains which front the RockyMountains—Character profiles—Reading references | [209] |
| CHAPTER XVII | |
| Repeating Patterns in the Earth Relief | |
| The weathering processes under control of the fracture system—Thefracture control of the drainage lines—The repeating pattern in drainagenetworks—The dividing lines of the relief patterns: lineaments—Thecomposite repeating patterns of the higher orders—Readingreferences | [223] |
| CHAPTER XVIII | |
| The Forms carved and molded by Waves | |
| The motion of a water wave—Free waves and breakers—Effect of thebreaking wave upon a steep, rocky shore: the notched cliff—Coves,sea arches, and stacks—The cut rock terrace—The cut and builtterrace on a steep shore of loose materials—The work of the shorecurrent—The sand beach—The shingle beach—Bar, spit, and barrier—Theland-tied island—A barrier series—Character profiles—Readingreferences | [231] |
| CHAPTER XIX | |
| Coast Records of the Rise or Fall of the Land | |
| The characters in which the record has been preserved—Even coast linethe mark of uplift—A ragged coast line the mark of subsidence—Slowuplift of the coasts; the coastal plain and cuesta—The sudden upliftsof the coast—The upraised cliff—The uplifted barrier beach—Coastterraces—The sunk or embayed coast—Submerged river channels—Recordsof an oscillation of movement—Simultaneous contrary movementsupon a coast—The contrasted islands of San Clemente andSanta Catalina—The Blue Grotto of Capri—Character profiles—Readingreferences | [245] |
| CHAPTER XX | |
| The Glaciers of Mountain and Continent | |
| Conditions essential to glaciation—The snow-line—Importance of mountainbarriers in initiating glaciers—Sensitiveness of glaciers to temperaturechanges—The cycle of glaciation—The advancing hemicycle—Continentaland mountain glaciers contrasted—The nourishmentof glaciers—The upper and lower cloud zones of the atmosphere | [261] |
| CHAPTER XXI | |
| The Continental Glaciers of Polar Regions | |
| The inland ice of Greenland—The mountain rampart and its portals—Themarginal rock islands—Rock fragments which travel with theice—The grinding mill beneath the ice—The lifting of the grindingtools and their incorporation within the ice—Melting upon the glaciermargins in Greenland—The marginal moraines—The outwash plainor apron—The continental glacier of Antarctica—Nourishment ofcontinental glaciers—The glacier broom—Field and pack ice—Thedrift of the pack—The Antarctic shelf ice—Icebergs and snowbergsand the manner of their birth—Reading references | [271] |
| CHAPTER XXII | |
| The Continental Glaciers of the “Ice Age” | |
| Earlier cycles of glaciation—Contrast of the glaciated and nonglaciatedregions—The “driftless area”—Characteristics of the glaciatedregions—The glacier gravings—Younger records over older: theglacier palimpsest—The dispersion of the drift—The diamonds ofthe drift—Tabulated comparison of the glaciated and nonglaciatedregions—Unassorted and assorted drift—Features into which thedrift is molded—Marginal or “kettle” moraines—Outwash plains—Pittedplains and interlobate moraines—Eskers—Drumlins—Theshelf ice of the ice age—Character profiles | [297] |
| CHAPTER XXIII | |
| Glacial Lakes which marked the Decline of the Last Ice Age | |
| Interference of glaciers with drainage—Temporary lakes due to ice blocking—The“parallel roads” of the Scottish glens—The glacial LakeAgassiz—Episodes of the glacial lake history within the St. LawrenceValley—The crescentic lakes of the earlier stages—The early LakeMaumee—The later Lake Maumee—Lakes Arkona and Whittlesey—LakeWarren—Lakes Iroquois and Algonquin—The NipissingGreat Lakes—Summary of lake stages—Permanent changes ofdrainage effected by the glacier—Glacial Lake Ojibway in the Hudson’sBay drainage basin—Reading references | [320] |
| CHAPTER XXIV | |
| The Uptilt of the Land at the Close of the Ice Age | |
| The response of the earth’s shell to its ice mantle—The abandoned strandsas they appear to-day—The records of uplift about Mackinac Island—Thepresent inclinations of the uplifted strands—The hinge lines ofuptilt—Future consequences of the continued uptilt within the lakeregion—Gilbert’s prophecy of a future outlet of the Great Lakes tothe Mississippi—Geological evidences of continued uplift—Drowningof southwestern shores of Lakes Superior and Erie—Reading references | [340] |
| CHAPTER XXV | |
| Niagara Falls a Clock of Recent Geological Time | |
| Features in and about the Niagara gorge—The drilling of the gorge—Thepresent rate of recession—Future extinction of the American Fall—Thecaptured Canadian Fall at Wintergreen Flats—The WhirlpoolBasin excavated from the St. David’s gorge—The shaping of theLewiston Escarpment—Episodes of Niagara’s history and their correlationwith those of the glacial lakes—Time measures of the Niagaraclock—The horologe of late glacial time in Scandinavia—Readingreferences | [352] |
| CHAPTER XXVI | |
| Land Sculpture by Mountain Glaciers | |
| Contrasted sculpturing of continental and mountain glaciers—Wind distributionof the snow which falls in mountains—The niches whichform on snowdrift sites—The augmented snowdrift moves down thevalley: birth of the glacier—The excavation of the glacial amphitheateror cirque—Life history of the cirque—Grooved and fretteduplands—The features carved above the glacier—The features shapedbeneath the glacier—The cascade stairway in glacier-carved valleys—Thecharacter profiles which result from sculpture by mountain glaciers—Thesculpture accomplished by ice caps—The Norwegian tind orbeehive mountain—Reading references | [367] |
| CHAPTER XXVII | |
| Successive Glacier Types of a Waning Glaciation | |
| Transition from the ice cap to the mountain glacier—The piedmontglacier—The expanded-foot glacier—The dendritic glacier—Theradiating glacier—The horseshoe glacier—The inherited-basin glacier—Summaryof types of mountain glacier—Reading references | [383] |
| CHAPTER XXVIII | |
| The Glacier’s Surface Features and the Deposits upon its Bed | |
| The glacier flow—Crevasses and séracs—Bodies given up by the Glacierdes Bossons—The moraines—Selective melting upon the glaciersurface—Glacier drainage—Deposits within the vacated valley—Marksof the earlier occupation of mountains by glaciers—Readingreferences | [390] |
| CHAPTER XXIX | |
| A Study of Lake Basins | |
| Fresh water and saline lakes—Newland lakes—Basin-range lakes—Rift-valleylakes—Earthquake lakes—Crater lakes—Coulée lakes—Morainallakes—Pit lakes—Glint or colk lakes—Ice-dam lakes—Glacier-lobelakes—Rock-basin lakes—Valley moraine lakes—Landslidelakes—Border lakes—Ox-bow lakes—Saucer lakes—Crescenticlevee lakes—Raft lakes—Side-delta lakes—Delta lakes—Barrierlakes—Dune lakes—Sink lakes—Karst lakes: poljen—Playa lakes—Salines—Alluvial-damlakes—Résumé—Reading references | [401] |
| CHAPTER XXX | |
| The Ephemeral Existence of Lakes | |
| Lakes as settling basins—Drawing off of water by erosion of outlet—Thepulling in of headlands and the cutting off of bays—Lake extinctionby peat growth—Extinction of lakes in desert regions—The rôle oflakes in the economy of nature—Ice ramparts on lake shores—Readingreferences | [426] |
| CHAPTER XXXI | |
| The Origin and the Forms of Mountains | |
| A mountain defined—The festoons of mountain arcs—Theories of originof the mountain arcs—The Atlantic and Pacific coasts contrasted—Theblock type of mountain—Mountains of outflow or upheap—Domedmountains of uplift; laccolites—Mountains carved fromplateaus—The climatic conditions of the mountain sculpture—Theeffect of the resistant stratum—The mark of the rift in the erodedmountains—Reading references | [435] |
| APPENDICES | |
| A. The quick determination of the common minerals | [449] |
| B. Short descriptions of some common rocks | [462] |
| C. The preparation of topographical maps | [467] |
| D. Laboratory models for study in the interpretation of geological maps | [472] |
| E. Suggested itineraries for pilgrimages to study earth features | [475] |
| Index | [489] |
LIST OF PLATES
| PLATE | |||
| 1. | Mount Balfour and the Balfour Glacier in the Selkirks | [Frontispiece] | |
| FACING PAGE | |||
| 2. | A. | Layers compressed in experiments and showing the effect of a competent layer in the process of folding | [44] |
| B. | Experimental production of a series of parallel thrusts within closely folded strata | [44] | |
| C. | Apparatus to illustrate shearing action within the overturned limb of a fold | [44] | |
| 3. | A. | An earthquake fault opened in Formosa in 1906 with vertical andlateral displacements combined | [72] |
| B. | Earthquake faults opened in Alaska in 1889 on which verticalslices of the earth’s shell have undergone individual adjustments | [72] | |
| 4. | A. | Experimental tank to illustrate the earth movements which aremanifested in earthquakes. The sections of the earth’s shell arehere represented before adjustment has taken place | [82] |
| B. | The same apparatus after a sudden adjustment | [82] | |
| C. | Model to illustrate a block displacement in rocks which are intersectedby master joints | [82] | |
| 5. | A. | Once wooded region in China now reduced to desert through deforestation | [156] |
| B. | “Bad Lands” in the Colorado Desert | [156] | |
| 6. | A. | Barren Karst landscape near the famous Adelsberg grottoes | [188] |
| B. | Surface of a limestone ledge where joints have been widened throughsolution | [188] | |
| 7. | A. | Ranges of dunes upon the margin of the Colorado Desert | [210] |
| B. | Sand dunes encroaching upon the oasis of Oued Souf, Algeria | [210] | |
| 8. | A. | The granite needles of Harney Peak in the Black Hills of SouthDakota | [216] |
| B. | Castellated erosion chimneys in El Cobra Cañon, New Mexico | [216] | |
| 9. | Map of the High Plains at the eastern front of the Rocky Mountains | [220] | |
| 10. | A. | View in Spitzbergen to illustrate the disintegration of rock underthe control of joints | [228] |
| B. | Composite pattern of the joint structures within recent alluvialdeposits of the Syrian Desert | [228] | |
| 11. | A. | Ripple markings within an ancient sandstone | [232] |
| B. | Wave breaking as it approaches the shore | [232] | |
| 12. | A. | V-shaped cañon cut in an upland recently elevated from the sea,San Clemente Island, California | [256] |
| B. | A “hogback” at the base of the Bighorn Mountains, Wyoming | [256] | |
| 13. | A. | Precipitous front of the Bryant Glacier outlet of the Greenlandinland ice | [272] |
| B. | Lateral stream beside the Benedict Glacier outlet, Greenland | [272] | |
| 14. | View of the margin of the Antarctic continental glacier in KaiserWilhelm Land | [282] | |
| 15. | A. | An Antarctic ice foot with boat party landing | [290] |
| B. | A near view of the front of the Great Ross Barrier, Antarctica | [290] | |
| 16. | A. | Incised topography within the “driftless area” | [300] |
| B. | Built-up topography within the glaciated region | [300] | |
| 17. | A. | Soled glacial bowlders which show differently directed striæ uponthe same facet | [306] |
| B. | Perched bowlder upon a striated ledge of different rocktype, Bronx Park, New York | [306] | |
| C. | Characteristic knob and basin surface of a moraine | [306] | |
| 18. | A. | Fretted upland of the Alps seen from the summit of Mount Blanc | [372] |
| B. | Model of the Malaspina Glacier and the fretted upland above it | [372] | |
| 19. | A. | Contour map of a grooved upland, Bighorn Mountains, Wyoming | [372] |
| B. | Contour map of a fretted upland, Philipsburg Quadrangle, Montana | [372] | |
| 20. | Map of the surface modeled by mountain glaciers in the Sierra Nevadasof California | [376] | |
| 21. | A. | View of the Harvard Glacier, Alaska, showing the characteristicterraces | [394] |
| B. | The terminal moraine at the foot of a mountain glacier | [394] | |
| 22. | A. | Model of the vicinity of Chicago, showing the position of theoutlet of the former Lake Chicago | [400] |
| B. | Map of Yosemite Falls and its earlier site near Eagle Peak | [400] | |
| 23. | A. | View of the American Fall at Niagara, showing the accumulationof blocks beneath | [414] |
| B. | Crystal Lake, a landslide lake in Colorado | [414] | |
| 24. | A. | Apparatus for exercise in the preparation of topographic maps | [468] |
| B. | The same apparatus in use for testing the contours of a map | [468] | |
| C. | Modeling apparatus in use | [468] | |
ILLUSTRATIONS IN THE TEXT
| FIG. | PAGE | |
| 1. | Diagram to show the measure of the earth’s surface irregularities | [11] |
| 2. | Map to show the reciprocal relation of areas of land and sea | [11] |
| 3. | The tetrahedral form toward which the earth is tending | [12] |
| 4. | A truncated tetrahedron to show the reciprocal relation of projection and depression upon the surface | [13] |
| 5. | Approximations to earlier and present figures of the earth | [15] |
| 6. | Diagrams for comparison of coasts upon an upright and upon an inverted tetrahedron | [17] |
| 7. | The continents, including submerged portions | [18] |
| 8. | Diagram to indicate the altitude of different parts of the lithosphere surface | [18] |
| 9. | Diagram to show how the terrestrial rocks grade into the meteorites | [22] |
| 10. | Comparison of a crystalline with an amorphous substance | [24] |
| 11. | “Light figure” seen upon etched surface of calcite | [25] |
| 12. | Battered sand grains which have developed crystal faces | [26] |
| 13. | Unassimilated grains of quartz within a garnet crystal | [28] |
| 14. | New minerals developed about the core of an augite crystal | [28] |
| 15. | A common rim of new mineral developed by reaction where earlier minerals come into contact | [28] |
| 16. | Laminated structure of a sedimentary rock | [30] |
| 17. | Characteristic textures of igneous rocks | [33] |
| 18. | Diagram to show the order of sediments laid down during a transgression of the sea | [37] |
| 19. | Fractures produced by compression of a block of molder’s wax | [41] |
| 20. | Apparatus to illustrate the folding of strata | [41] |
| 21. | Diagrams of fold types | [42] |
| 22. | Diagrams to illustrate crustal shortening | [42] |
| 23. | Anticlinal and synclinal folds | [43] |
| 24. | Diagrams to illustrate the shapes of rock folds | [44] |
| 25. | Secondary and tertiary flexures superimposed upon the primary ones | [44] |
| 26. | A bent stratum to illustrate tension and compression upon opposite sides | [45] |
| 27. | A geological section with truncated arches restored | [47] |
| 28. | Diagram to illustrate the nature of strike and dip | [47] |
| 29. | Diagram to show the use of T symbols for strike and dip observation | [48] |
| 30. | Diagram to show how the thickness of a formation is determined | [49] |
| 31. | A plunging anticline | [50] |
| 32. | A plunging syncline | [50] |
| 33. | An unconformity upon the coast of California | [51] |
| 34. | Series of diagrams to illustrate the episodes involved in the production of an angular unconformity | [52] |
| 35. | Types of deceptive or erosional unconformities | [53] |
| 36. | A set of master joints in shale | [55] |
| 37. | Diagram to show the manner of replacement of one set of joints by another | [56] |
| 38. | Diagram to show the different combinations of joint series | [56] |
| 39. | View of the shore in West Greenland | [57] |
| 40. | View in Iceland which shows joint intervals of more than one order | [57] |
| 41. | Faulted blocks of basalt near Woodbury, Connecticut | [58] |
| 42. | A fault in previously disturbed strata | [59] |
| 43. | Diagram to show the effect of erosion upon a fault | [60] |
| 44. | A fault plane exhibiting drag | [60] |
| 45. | Map to show how a fault may be indicated by abrupt changes in strike and dip | [61] |
| 46. | A series of parallel faults revealed by offsets | [61] |
| 47. | Field map prepared from the laboratory table | [64] |
| 48. | Areal geological map based upon the field map | [64] |
| 49. | A portion of the ruins of Messina | [67] |
| 50. | Ruins of the Carnegie Palace of Peace at Cartaga, Costa Rica | [68] |
| 51. | Overturned bowlders from Assam earthquake of 1897 | [69] |
| 52. | Post sunk into ground during Charleston earthquake | [69] |
| 53. | Map showing localities where shocks have been reported at sea off Cape Mendocino, California | [70] |
| 54. | Effect of seismic water wave in Japan | [70] |
| 55. | A fault of vertical displacement | [71] |
| 56. | Escarpment produced by an earthquake fault in India | [72] |
| 57. | A fault of lateral displacement | [72] |
| 58. | Fence parted and displaced by lateral displacement on fault during California earthquake | [72] |
| 59. | Fault with vertical and lateral displacements combined | [72] |
| 60. | Diagram to show how small faults may be masked at the earth’s surface | [73] |
| 61. | “Mole hill” effect above buried earthquake fault | [73] |
| 62. | Post-glacial earthquake faults | [74] |
| 63. | Earthquake cracks in Colorado desert | [74] |
| 64. | Railway tracks broken or buckled at time of earthquake | [75] |
| 65. | Railroad bridge in Japan damaged by earthquake | [75] |
| 66. | Diagrams to show contraction of earth’s crust during an earthquake | [76] |
| 67. | Map of the Chedrang fault of India | [76] |
| 68. | Displacements along earthquake fault in Alaska | [77] |
| 69. | Abrupt change in direction of throw upon an earthquake fault | [77] |
| 70. | Map of faults in the Owens Valley, California, formed during earthquake of 1872 | [78] |
| 71. | Marquetry of the rock floor in the Tonopah district, Nevada | [79] |
| 72. | Map of Alaskan coast to show adjustments of level during an earthquake | [79] |
| 73. | An Alaskan shore elevated seventeen feet during the earthquake of 1899 | [80] |
| 74. | Partially submerged forest from depression of shore in Alaska during earthquake | [80] |
| 75. | Effect of settlement of the shore at Port Royal during earthquake of 1907 | [80] |
| 76. | Diagrams to illustrate the draining of lakes during earthquakes | [83] |
| 77. | Diagram to illustrate the derangements of water flow during an earthquake | [84] |
| 78. | Mud cones aligned upon an earthquake fissure in Servia | [84] |
| 79. | Craterlet formed near Charleston, South Carolina, during the earthquake of 1886 | [85] |
| 80. | Cross section of a craterlet | [85] |
| 81. | Map of the island of Ischia to show the concentration of earthquake shocks | [87] |
| 82. | A line of earth fracture revealed in the plan of the relief | [87] |
| 83. | Seismotectonic lines of the West Indies | [88] |
| 84. | Device to illustrate the different effects of earthquakes in firm rock and in loose materials | [88] |
| 85. | House wrecked in San Francisco earthquake | [90] |
| 86. | Building wrecked in California earthquake by roof and upper floor battering down the upper walls | [91] |
| 87. | Breached volcanic cone in New Zealand showing the bending down of the strata near the vent | [96] |
| 88. | View of the new Camiguin volcano formed in 1871 in the Philippines | [97] |
| 89. | Map to show the belts of active volcanoes | [98] |
| 90. | A portion of the “fire girdle” of the Pacific | [98] |
| 91. | Volcanic cones formed in 1783 above the Skaptár fissure in Iceland | [99] |
| 92. | Diagrams to illustrate the location of volcanic vents upon fissure lines | [100] |
| 93. | Outline map showing the arrangement of volcanic vents upon the island of Java | [100] |
| 94. | Map showing the migration of volcanoes along a fissure | [101] |
| 95. | Basaltic plateau of the northwestern United States due to fissure eruptions of lava | [102] |
| 96. | Lava plains about the Snake River in Idaho | [102] |
| 97. | Characteristic profiles of lava volcanoes | [103] |
| 98. | A driblet cone | [104] |
| 99. | Leffingwell Crater, a cinder cone in the Owens Valley, California | [104] |
| 100. | Map of Hawaii and its lava volcanoes | [106] |
| 101. | Section through Mauna Loa and Kilauea | [106] |
| 102. | Schematic diagram to illustrate the moving platform in the crater of Kilauea | [107] |
| 103. | View of the open lava lake of Halemaumau | [108] |
| 104. | Map to show the manner of outflow of the lava from Kilauea in the eruption of 1840 | [109] |
| 105. | Lava of Matavanu flowing down to the sea during the eruption of 1906 | [110] |
| 106. | Lava stream discharging into the sea from a lava tunnel | [111] |
| 107. | Diagrammatic representation of the structure of lava volcanoes as a result of the draining of frozen lava streams | [112] |
| 108. | Diagram to show the formation of mesas by outflow of lava in valleys and subsequent erosion | [112] |
| 109. | Surface of lava of the Pahoehoe type | [113] |
| 110. | Three successive views to show the growth of the island of Savaii, from lava outflow in 1906 | [113] |
| 111. | View of the volcano of Stromboli showing the excentric position of the crater | [116] |
| 112. | Diagrams to illustrate the eruptions within the crater of Stromboli | [117] |
| 113. | Map of Volcano in the Æolian Islands | [118] |
| 114. | “Bread-crust” lava projectile from the eruption of Volcano in 1888 | [119] |
| 115. | “Cauliflower cloud” of steam and ash rising above the cinder cone of Volcano | [120] |
| 116. | Eruption of Taal volcano in 1911 seen from a distance of six miles | [120] |
| 117. | The thick mud veneer upon the island of Taal (after a photograph by Deniston) | [121] |
| 118. | A pear-shaped lava projectile | [121] |
| 119. | Artificial production of a cinder cone | [122] |
| 120. | Diagram to show the contrast between a lava dome and a cinder cone | [123] |
| 121. | Mayon volcano on the island of Luzon, Philippine Islands | [123] |
| 122. | A series of breached cinder cones due to migration of the eruption along a fissure | [124] |
| 123. | The mouth upon the inner cone of Mount Vesuvius from which flowed the lava of 1872 | [124] |
| 124. | A row of parasitic cones raised above a fissure opened on the flanks of Etna in 1892 | [125] |
| 125. | View of Etna, showing the parasitic cones upon its flanks | [125] |
| 126. | Sketch map of Etna to show the areas covered by lava and tuff respectively | [126] |
| 127. | Panum crater showing the caldera | [126] |
| 128. | View of Mount Vesuvius before the eruption of 1906 | [127] |
| 129. | Sketches of the summit of the Vesuvian cone to bring out the changes in its outline | [128] |
| 130. | Night view of Vesuvius from Naples before the outbreak of 1906, showing a small lava stream descending the central cone | [129] |
| 131. | Scoriaceous lava encroaching upon the tracks of the Vesuvian railway | [130] |
| 132. | Map of Vesuvius, showing the position of the lava mouths opened upon its flanks during the eruption of 1906 | [131] |
| 133. | The ash curtain over Vesuvius lifting and disclosing the outlines of the mountain | [132] |
| 134. | The central cone of Vesuvius as it appeared after the eruption of 1906 | [132] |
| 135. | A sunken road upon Vesuvius filled with indrifted ash | [133] |
| 136. | View of Vesuvius from the southwest during the waning stages of the eruption | [133] |
| 137. | The main lava stream advancing upon Boscotrecase | [133] |
| 138. | A pine snapped off by the lava and carried forward upon its surface | [133] |
| 139. | Lava front pushing over and running around a wall in its path | [134] |
| 140. | One of the ruined villas in Boscotrecase | [134] |
| 141. | Three diagrams to illustrate the sequence of events during the cone-building and crater-producing periods | [135] |
| 142. | The spine of Pelé rising above the chimney of the volcano after the eruption of 1902 | [136] |
| 143. | Successive outlines of the Pelé spine | [137] |
| 144. | Corrugated surface of the Vesuvian cone due to the mud flows which followed the eruption of 1906 | [138] |
| 145. | View of the Kammerbühl near Eger in Bohemia | [139] |
| 146. | Volcanic plug exposed by natural dissection of a volcanic cone in Colorado | [140] |
| 147. | A dike cutting beds of tuff in a partly dissected volcano of southwestern Colorado | [140] |
| 148. | Map and general view of St. Paul’s rocks, a volcanic cone dissected by waves | [141] |
| 149. | Dissection by explosion of Little Bandai-san in 1888 | [141] |
| 150. | The half-submerged volcano of Krakatoa before and after the eruption of 1883 | [142] |
| 151. | The cicatrice of the Banat | [142] |
| 152. | Diagram to illustrate a probable cause of formation of lava reservoirs and the connection with volcanoes upon the surface | [143] |
| 153. | Effect of relief of load upon rocks by arching of a competent formation | [144] |
| 154. | Character profiles connected with volcanoes | [146] |
| 155. | Diagrams to show the effect of decomposition in producing spheroidal bowlders | [150] |
| 156. | Spheroidal weathering of an igneous rock | [151] |
| 157. | Dome structure in granite mass | [152] |
| 158. | Talus slope beneath a cliff | [153] |
| 159. | Striped ground from soil flow | [154] |
| 160. | Pavement of horizontal surface due to soil flow | [154] |
| 161. | Tree roots prying rock apart on fissure | [154] |
| 162. | Bowlder split by a growing tree | [155] |
| 163. | Rock mantle beneath soil and vegetable mat | [155] |
| 164. | Diagram to show the varying thickness of mantle rock upon the different portions of a hill surface | [156] |
| 165. | Gullies from earliest stage of a river’s life | [160] |
| 166. | Partially dissected upland | [160] |
| 167. | Longitudinal sections of upper portion of a river valley | [161] |
| 168. | Map and sections of a stream meander | [163] |
| 169. | Tree undermined on the outer bank of a meander | [164] |
| 170. | Diagrams to show the successive positions of stream meanders | [164] |
| 171. | An ox-bow lake in the flood plain of a river | [165] |
| 172. | Schematic representation of a series of river terraces | [165] |
| 173. | “Bird-foot” delta of the Mississippi River | [167] |
| 174. | Diagrams to show the nature of delta deposits as exhibited in sections | [168] |
| 175. | Gorge of the River Rhine near St. Goars | [169] |
| 176. | Valley with rounded shoulders characteristic of the stage of adolescence | [170] |
| 177. | View of a maturely dissected upland | [170] |
| 178. | Hogarth’s line of beauty | [171] |
| 179. | View of the oldland of New England, with Mount Monadnock rising in the distance | [171] |
| 180. | Comparison of the cross sections of river valleys of different stages | [172] |
| 181. | The Beavertail Bend of the Yakima River | [173] |
| 182. | A rejuvenated river valley | [174] |
| 183. | Plan of a river narrows | [174] |
| 184. | Successive diagrams to illustrate the origin of “trellis drainage” | [175] |
| 185. | Sketch maps to show the earlier and present drainage near Harper’s Ferry | [176] |
| 186. | Section to illustrate the history of Snickers Gap | [177] |
| 187. | Character profiles of landscapes shaped by stream erosion in humid climates | [177] |
| 188. | Diagram to show the seasonal range in the position of the water table | [180] |
| 189. | Diagram to show the effect of an impervious layer upon the descending water | [181] |
| 190. | Sketch map to illustrate corrosion of limestone along two series of vertical joints | [181] |
| 191. | Diagram to show the relation of limestone caverns to the river system of the district | [182] |
| 192. | Plan of a portion of Mammoth Cave, Kentucky | [183] |
| 193. | Trees and shrubs growing upon the bottoms of limestone sinks | [183] |
| 194. | Diagrams to show the manner of formation of stalactites and stalagmites | [185] |
| 195. | Sinter formations in the Luray caverns | [186] |
| 196. | Map of the dolines of the Karst region | [187] |
| 197. | Cross section of a doline formed by inbreak | [187] |
| 198. | Sharp Karren of the Ifenplatte | [188] |
| 199. | The Zirknitz seasonal lake | [189] |
| 200. | Fissure springs arranged at intersections of rock fractures | [190] |
| 201. | Schematic diagrams to illustrate the different types of artesian wells | [191] |
| 202. | Cross section of Geysir, Iceland | [192] |
| 203. | Apparatus for simulating geyser action | [193] |
| 204. | Cone of siliceous sinter about the Lone Star Geyser | [194] |
| 205. | Former shore lines in the Great Basin | [198] |
| 206. | Map of the former Lake Bonneville | [199] |
| 207. | Borax deposits in Death Valley, California | [201] |
| 208. | Hollowed forms of weathered granite in a desert of Central Asia | [201] |
| 209. | Hollow hewn blocks in a wall in the Wadi Guerraui | [202] |
| 210. | Smooth granite domes shaped by exfoliation | [203] |
| 211. | Granite blocks rent by diffission | [204] |
| 212. | “Mushroom Rock” from a desert in Wyoming | [205] |
| 213. | Windkanten shaped by sand blast in the desert | [205] |
| 214. | The “stone lattice” of the desert | [206] |
| 215. | Shadow erosion in the desert | [206] |
| 216. | Cliffs in loess with characteristic vertical jointing | [207] |
| 217. | A cañon in loess worn by traffic and wind | [207] |
| 218. | Diagrams to illustrate the effects of obstructions in arresting wind-driven sand | [209] |
| 219. | Sand accumulating on either side of a firm and impenetrable obstruction | [210] |
| 220. | Successive diagrams to illustrate the history of the town of Kunzen upon the Kurische Nehrung | [210] |
| 221. | View of desert barchans | [211] |
| 222. | Diagrams to show the relationships of dunes to sand supply and wind direction | [211] |
| 223. | Ideal section showing the rising mountain wall about a desert and the neighboring slope | [212] |
| 224. | Dry delta at the foot of a range upon the borders of a desert | [213] |
| 225. | Map of distributaries of streams which issue at the western base of the Sierra Nevadas | [213] |
| 226. | A group of “demoiselles” in the “bad lands” | [214] |
| 227. | Amphitheater at the head of the Wadi Beni Sur | [215] |
| 228. | Mesa and outlier in the Leucite Hills of Wyoming | [216] |
| 229. | Flat-bottomed basin separating dunes | [216] |
| 230. | Billowy surface of the salt crust on the central sink of the desert of Lop | [217] |
| 231. | Schematic diagram to show the zones of deposition in their order from the margin to the center of a desert | [217] |
| 232. | Mounds upon the site of the buried city of Nippur | [218] |
| 233. | Exhumed structures in the buried city of Nippur | [218] |
| 234. | Section across the High Plains | [219] |
| 235. | Section across the lenticular threads of alluvial deposits of the High Plains | [220] |
| 236. | Distributaries of the foot hills superimposed upon an earlier series | [220] |
| 237. | Character profiles in the landscapes of arid lands | [220] |
| 238. | Rain sculpturing under control by joints | [224] |
| 239. | Sagging of limestone above joints | [224] |
| 240. | Map of the joint-controlled Abisko Cañon in Northern Lapland | [225] |
| 241. | Map of the gorge of the Zambesi River below Victoria Falls | [225] |
| 242. | Controlled drainage network of the Shepaug River in Connecticut | [226] |
| 243. | A river network of repeating rectangular pattern | [226] |
| 244. | Squared mountain masses which reveal a distribution of joints in block patterns of different orders | [228] |
| 245. | Island groups of the Lofoten Archipelago | [229] |
| 246. | Diagrams to illustrate the composite profiles of the islands on the Norwegian coast | [229] |
| 247. | Diagram to show the nature of the motions within a free water wave | [231] |
| 248. | Diagram to illustrate the transformation of a free wave into a breaker | [232] |
| 249. | Notched rock cliff and fallen blocks | [233] |
| 250. | A wave-cut chasm under control by joints | [233] |
| 251. | Grand Arch upon one of the Apostle Islands in Lake Superior | [234] |
| 252. | Stack near the shore of Lake Superior | [234] |
| 253. | The Marble Islands, stacks in a lake of the southern Andes | [235] |
| 254. | Squared stacks revealing the position of the joint planes on which they were carved | [235] |
| 255. | Ideal section cut by waves upon a steep rocky shore | [236] |
| 256. | Map showing the outlines of the island of Heligoland at different stages in its history | [236] |
| 257. | Ideal section carved by waves upon a steep shore of loose materials | [237] |
| 258. | Sloping cliff and boulder pavement at Scituate, Massachusetts | [237] |
| 259. | Map to show the nature of the shore current and the forms which are molded by it | [238] |
| 260. | Crescent-shaped beach in the lee of a headland | [239] |
| 261. | Cross section of a beach pebble | [239] |
| 262. | A storm beach on the northeast shore of Green Bay | [240] |
| 263. | Spit of shingle on Au Train Island, Lake Superior | [240] |
| 264. | Barrier beach in front of a lagoon | [241] |
| 265. | Cross section of a barrier beach with lagoon in its rear | [242] |
| 266. | Cross section of a series of barriers and an outer bar | [242] |
| 267. | A barrier series and an outer bar on Lake Mendota at Madison, Wisconsin | [242] |
| 268. | Series of barriers at the western end of Lake Superior | [243] |
| 269. | Character profiles resulting from wave action upon shores | [243] |
| 270. | The even shore line of a raised coast | [246] |
| 271. | The ragged coast line produced by subsidence | [246] |
| 272. | Portion of the Atlantic coastal plain at the base of the oldland | [246] |
| 273. | Ideal form of cuestas and intermediate lowlands carved from a coastal plain | [247] |
| 274. | Uplifted sea cave on the coast of California | [248] |
| 275. | Double-notched cliff near Cape Tiro, Celebes | [248] |
| 276. | Uplifted stacks on the coast of California | [249] |
| 277. | Uplifted shingle beach across the entrance to a former bay upon the coast of California | [250] |
| 278. | Raised beach terraces near Elie, Fife, Scotland | [250] |
| 279. | Uplifted sea cliffs and terraces on the Alaskan coast | [250] |
| 280. | Diagrams to show how excessive sinking upon the sea floor will cause the shore to migrate landward | [251] |
| 281. | A drowned river mouth or estuary upon a coastal plain | [251] |
| 282. | Archipelago of steep rocky islets due to submergence | [252] |
| 283. | The submerged Hudsonian channel which continues the Hudson River across the continental shelf | [252] |
| 284. | Marine clay deposits near the mouths of the Maine rivers which preserve a record of earlier subsidence and later elevation | [253] |
| 285. | View of the three standing columns of the Temple of Jupiter Serapis, at Pozzuoli | [254] |
| 286. | Three successive views to set forth the recent oscillations of level on the northern shore of the Bay of Naples | [255] |
| 287. | Relief map of San Clemente Island, California | [256] |
| 288. | Relief map of Santa Catalina Island, California | [257] |
| 289. | Cross section of the Blue Grotto, on the island of Capri | [258] |
| 290. | Character profiles of coast elevation and subsidence | [259] |
| 291. | Map showing the distribution of existing glaciers and the two important wind poles of the earth | [263] |
| 292. | An Alaskan glacier spreading out at the foot of the range which nourishes it | [264] |
| 293. | Surface of a glacier whose upper layers spread with but slight restraint from retaining walls | [265] |
| 294. | Section through a mountain glacier | [267] |
| 295. | Profile across the largest of the Icelandic ice caps | [267] |
| 296. | Ideal section across a continental glacier | [267] |
| 297. | View of the Eyriks Jökull, an ice cap of Iceland | [268] |
| 298. | The zones of the lower atmosphere as revealed by recent kite and balloon exploration | [269] |
| 299. | Map of Greenland, showing the area of inland ice and the routes of explorers | [271] |
| 300. | Profile in natural proportions across the southern end of the continental glacier of Greenland | [272] |
| 301. | Map of a glacier tongue with dimple above | [273] |
| 302. | Edge of the Greenland inland ice, showing the nunataks diminishing in size toward the interior | [274] |
| 303. | Moat surrounding a nunatak in Victoria Land | [274] |
| 304. | A glacier pavement of Permo-Carboniferous age in South Africa | [276] |
| 305. | Diagrams to illustrate the manner of formation of scape colks | [277] |
| 306. | Marginal moraine now forming at the edge of the continental glacier of Greenland | [279] |
| 307. | Small lake between the ice front and a moraine which it has recently built | [279] |
| 308. | View of a drained lake bottom between the ice front and an abandoned moraine | [280] |
| 309. | Diagrams to show the manner of formation and the structure of an outwash plain and fosse | [280] |
| 310. | Map of the ice masses of Victoria Land, Antarctica | [282] |
| 311. | Sections across the inland ice and the shelf ice of Antarctica | [283] |
| 312. | Diagram to show the nature of the fixed glacial anticyclone above continental glaciers | [284] |
| 313. | Snow deltas about the margins of a glacier tongue in Greenland | [285] |
| 314. | View of the sea ice of the Arctic region | [286] |
| 315. | Map of the north polar regions, showing the area of drift ice and the tracks of the Jeannette and the Fram | [288] |
| 316. | The shelf ice of Coats Land with surrounding pack ice | [290] |
| 317. | Tidewater cliff on a glacier tongue from which icebergs are born | [290] |
| 318. | A Greenlandic iceberg after a long journey in warm latitudes | [291] |
| 319. | Diagram showing one way in which northern icebergs are born from the glacier tongue | [291] |
| 320. | A northern iceberg surrounded by sea ice | [292] |
| 321. | Tabular Antarctic iceberg separating from the shelf ice | [293] |
| 322. | Map of the globe, showing the areas covered by continental glaciers during the “ice age” | [297] |
| 323. | Glaciated granite bowlder weathered out of a moraine of Permo-Carboniferous age, South Australia | [298] |
| 324. | Map to show the glaciated and nonglaciated regions of North America | [298] |
| 325. | Map of the glaciated and nonglaciated areas of northern Europe | [299] |
| 326. | An unstable erosion remnant characteristic of the “driftless area” | [300] |
| 327. | Diagram showing the manner in which a continental glacier obliterates existing valleys | [301] |
| 328. | Lake and marsh district in northern Wisconsin | [302] |
| 329. | Cross section in natural proportion of the latest North American continental glacier | [303] |
| 330. | Diagram showing the earlier and the later glacier records together upon the same limestone surface | [304] |
| 331. | Map to show the outcroppings of peculiar rock types in the region of the Great Lakes, and some localities where “drift copper” has been collected | [305] |
| 332. | Map of the “bowlder train” from Iron Hill, Rhode Island | [306] |
| 333. | Shapes and approximate natural sizes of some of the diamonds from the Great Lakes region | [307] |
| 334. | Glacial map of a portion of the Great Lakes region | [308] |
| 335. | Section in coarse till | [310] |
| 336. | Sketch map of portions of Michigan, Ohio, and Indiana, showing the distribution of moraines | [312] |
| 337. | Map of the vicinity of Devil’s Lake, Wisconsin, partly covered by the continental glacier | [313] |
| 338. | Moraine with outwash apron in front | [313] |
| 339. | Fosse between an outwash plain and a moraine | [314] |
| 340. | View along an esker in southern Maine | [315] |
| 341. | Outline map of moraines and eskers in Finland | [315] |
| 342. | Sketch maps showing the relationships of drumlins and eskers | [316] |
| 343. | View of a drumlin, showing an opening in the till | [317] |
| 344. | Outline map of the front of the Green Bay lobe to show the relationships of drumlins, moraines, outwash plains, and ground moraine | [317] |
| 345. | Character profiles referable to continental glacier | [318] |
| 346. | View of the flood plain of the ancient Illinois River near Peoria | [320] |
| 347. | Broadly terraced valleys which mark the floods that once issued from the continental glacier of North America | [321] |
| 348. | Border drainage about the retreating ice front south of Lake Erie | [321] |
| 349. | The “parallel roads” of Glen Roy in the Scottish Highlands | [322] |
| 350. | Map of Glen Roy and neighboring valleys of the Scottish Highlands | [322] |
| 351. | Three successive diagrams to set forth the late glacial lake history of the Scottish glens | [324] |
| 352. | Harvesting time on the fertile floor of the glacial Lake Agassiz | [325] |
| 353. | Map of Lake Agassiz | [325] |
| 354. | Map showing some of the beaches of Lake Agassiz and its outlet | [326] |
| 355. | Narrows of the Warren River where it passed between jaws of granite and gneiss | [327] |
| 356. | Map of the valley of the Warren River near Minneapolis | [327] |
| 357. | Portion of the Herman beach on the shore of the former Lake Agassiz | [328] |
| 358. | Map of the continental glacier of North America when it covered the entire St. Lawrence basin | [329] |
| 359. | Outline map of the early Lake Maumee | [330] |
| 360. | Map to show the first stages of the ice-dammed lakes within the St. Lawrence basin | [330] |
| 361. | Outline map of the later Lake Maumee and its outlet | [332] |
| 362. | Outline map of lakes Whittlesey and Saginaw | [333] |
| 363. | Map of the glacial Lake Warren | [333] |
| 364. | Map of the glacial Lake Algonquin | [334] |
| 365. | Outline map of the Nipissing Great Lakes | [335] |
| 366. | Probable preglacial drainage of the upper Ohio region | [337] |
| 367. | Diagrams to illustrate the episodes in the recent history of a Connecticut river | [338] |
| 368. | The notched rock headland of Boyer Bluff on Lake Michigan | [341] |
| 369. | View of Mackinac Island from the direction of St. Ignace | [342] |
| 370. | The “Sugar Loaf”, a stack of Lake Algonquin upon Mackinac Island | [342] |
| 371. | Beach ridges in series on Mackinac Island | [343] |
| 372. | Notched stack of the Nipissing Great Lakes at St. Ignace | [343] |
| 373. | Series of diagrams to illustrate the evolution of ideas concerning the uplift of the lake region since the Ice Age | [344] |
| 374. | Map of the Great Lakes region to show the isobases and hinge lines of uptilt | [345] |
| 375. | Series of diagrams to indicate the nature of the recovery of the crust by uplift when unloaded of an ice mantle | [346] |
| 376. | Portion of the Inner Sandusky Bay, for comparison of the shore line of 1820 with that of to-day | [350] |
| 377. | Ideal cross section of the Niagara Gorge to show the marginal terrace | [353] |
| 378. | View of the bed of the Niagara River above the cataract where water has been drained off | [353] |
| 379. | View of the Falls of St. Anthony in 1851 | [354] |
| 380. | Ideal section to show the nature of the drilling process beneath the cataract | [355] |
| 381. | Plan and section of the gorge, showing how the depth is proportional to the width | [355] |
| 382. | Comparative views of the Canadian Falls in 1827 and 1895 | [356] |
| 383. | Map to show the recession of the Canadian Fall | [357] |
| 384. | Comparison of the present with the future falls | [358] |
| 385. | Bird’s-eye view of the captured Canadian Fall at Wintergreen Flats | [358] |
| 386. | Map of the Whirlpool Basin | [360] |
| 387. | Map of the cuestas which have played so important a part in fixing the boundaries of the lake basins | [361] |
| 388. | Bird’s-eye view of the cuestas south of Lakes Ontario and Erie | [362] |
| 389. | Sketch map of the greater portion of the Niagara Gorge to illustrate Niagara history | [363] |
| 390. | Snowdrift hollowing its bed by nivation | [368] |
| 391. | Amphitheater formed upon a drift site in northern Lapland | [369] |
| 392. | The marginal crevasse on the highest margin of a glacier | [370] |
| 393. | Niches and cirques in the Bighorn Mountains of Wyoming | [371] |
| 394. | Subordinate cirques in the amphitheater on the west face of the Wannehorn | [371] |
| 395. | “Biscuit cutting” effect of glacial sculpture in the Uinta Mountains of Wyoming | [372] |
| 396. | Diagram to show the cause of the hyperbolic curve of cols | [372] |
| 397. | A col in the Selkirks | [373] |
| 398. | Diagrams to illustrate the formation of comb ridges, cols, and horns | [374] |
| 399. | The U-shaped Kern Valley in the Sierra Nevadas of California | [375] |
| 400. | Glaciated valley wall, showing the sharp line which separates the abraded from the undermined rock surface | [375] |
| 401. | View of the Vale of Chamonix from the séracs of the Glacier des Bossons | [376] |
| 402. | Map of an area near the continental divide in Colorado | [377] |
| 403. | Gorge of the Albula River in the Engadine cut through a rock bar | [378] |
| 404. | Idealistic sketch, showing glaciated and nonglaciated side valleys | [378] |
| 405. | Character profiles sculptured by mountain glaciers | [379] |
| 406. | Flat dome shaped under the margin of a Norwegian ice cap | [379] |
| 407. | Two views which illustrate successive stages in the shaping of tinds | [380] |
| 408. | Schematic diagram to bring out the relationships of the various types of mountain glaciers | [383] |
| 409. | Map of the Malaspina Glacier of Alaska | [384] |
| 410. | Map of the Baltoro Glacier of the Himalayas | [385] |
| 411. | View of the Triest Glacier, a hanging glacieret | [385] |
| 412. | Map of the Harriman Fjord Glacier of Alaska | [386] |
| 413. | Map of the Rotmoos Glacier, a radiating glacier of Switzerland | [386] |
| 414. | Outline map of the Asulkan Glacier in the Selkirks, a horseshoe glacier | [387] |
| 415. | Outline map of the Illecillewaet Glacier of the Selkirks, an inherited-basin glacier | [388] |
| 416. | Diagram to illustrate the surface flow of glaciers | [390] |
| 417. | Diagram to show the transformation of crevasses into séracs | [391] |
| 418. | View of the Glacier des Bossons, showing the position of accidents to Alpinists | [392] |
| 419. | Lines of flow upon the surface of the Hintereisferner Glacier in the Alps | [393] |
| 420. | Lateral and medial moraines of the Mer de Glace and its tributaries | [393] |
| 421. | Ideal cross section of a mountain glacier | [394] |
| 422. | Diagrams to illustrate the melting effects upon glacier ice of rock fragments of different sizes | [394] |
| 423. | Small glacier table upon the Great Aletsch Glacier | [395] |
| 424. | Effects of differential melting and subsequent refreezing upon a glacier surface | [396] |
| 425. | Dirt cone with its casing in part removed | [396] |
| 426. | Schematic diagram to show the manner of formation of glacier cornices | [397] |
| 427. | Superglacial stream upon the Great Aletsch Glacier | [398] |
| 428. | Ideal form of the surface left on the site of a piedmont glacier apron | [399] |
| 429. | Map of the site of the earlier piedmont glacier of the Upper Rhine | [399] |
| 430. | Diagram and map to bring out the characteristics of newland lakes | [402] |
| 431. | View of the Warner Lakes, Oregon | [402] |
| 432. | Schematic diagram to illustrate the characteristics of basin-range lakes | [403] |
| 433. | Schematic diagram of rift-valley lakes and the valley of the Jordan | [403] |
| 434. | Map of the rift-valley lakes of East Central Africa | [404] |
| 435. | Earthquake lakes formed in 1811 in the flood plain of the Lower Mississippi | [404] |
| 436. | View of a crater lake in Costa Rica | [405] |
| 437. | Diagrams to illustrate the characteristics of crater lakes | [406] |
| 438. | View of Snag Lake, a coulée lake in California | [406] |
| 439. | Diagrams to illustrate the characteristics of morainal lakes | [407] |
| 440. | Diagram to show the manner of formation of pit lakes | [408] |
| 441. | Diagrams to illustrate the characteristics of pit lakes | [408] |
| 442. | Diagram to show the manner of formation of glint lakes | [409] |
| 443. | Map of a series of glint lakes on the boundary of Sweden and Norway | [409] |
| 444. | Map of ice-dam lakes near the Norwegian boundary of Sweden | [410] |
| 445. | Wave-cut terrace of a former ice-dam lake in Sweden | [410] |
| 446. | View of the Márjelen Lake from the summit of the Eggishorn | [411] |
| 447. | Diagrams to illustrate the arrangement and the characters of rock-basin lakes | [412] |
| 448. | Convict Lake, a valley-moraine lake of California | [413] |
| 449. | Lake basins produced by successive slides from the steep walls of a glaciated mountain valley | [414] |
| 450. | Lake Garda, a border lake upon the site of a piedmont apron | [414] |
| 451. | Diagrams to bring out the characteristics of ox-bow lakes | [415] |
| 452. | Diagrammatic section to illustrate the formation of saucer-like basins between the levees of streams on a flood plain | [415] |
| 453. | Saucer lakes upon the bed of the former river Warren | [416] |
| 454. | Levee lakes developed in series within meanders in a delta plain | [417] |
| 455. | Raft lakes along the banks of the Red River in Arkansas and Louisiana | [418] |
| 456. | Map of the Swiss lakes Thun and Brienz | [419] |
| 457. | Delta lakes formed at the mouth of the Mississippi | [419] |
| 458. | Delta lakes at the margin of the Nile delta | [420] |
| 459. | Diagrams to illustrate the characteristics of barrier lakes | [420] |
| 460. | Dune lakes on the coast of France | [421] |
| 461. | Sink lakes in Florida, with a schematic diagram to illustrate the manner of their formation | [421] |
| 462. | Map of the Arve and the Upper Rhone | [426] |
| 463. | View of the Arve and the Rhone at their junction | [427] |
| 464. | A village in Switzerland built upon a strath at the head of Lake Poschiavo | [428] |
| 465. | View of the floating bog and surrounding zones of vegetation in a small glacial lake | [429] |
| 466. | Diagram to show how small lakes are transformed into peat bogs | [430] |
| 467. | Map to show the anomalous position of the delta in Lake St. Clair | [431] |
| 468. | A bowlder wall upon the shore of a small lake | [432] |
| 469. | Diagrams to show the effect of ice shove in producing ice ramparts upon the shores of lakes | [433] |
| 470. | Various forms of ice ramparts | [433] |
| 471. | Map of Lake Mendota, showing the position of the ridge which forms from ice expansion and the ice ramparts upon the shores | [434] |
| 472. | The great multiple mountain arc of Sewestan, British India | [436] |
| 473. | Diagrams to illustrate the theories of origin of mountain arcs | [437] |
| 474. | Festoons of mountain arcs about the borders of the Pacific Ocean | [438] |
| 475. | The interrupted Armorican Mountains common to western Europe and eastern North America | [438] |
| 476. | A zone of diverse displacement in the western United States | [439] |
| 477. | Section of an East African block mountain | [439] |
| 478. | Tilted crust blocks in the Queantoweap valley | [440] |
| 479. | View of the laccolite of the Carriso Mountain | [441] |
| 480. | Map of laccolitic mountains | [441] |
| 481. | Ideal sections of laccolite and bysmalite | [442] |
| 482. | The gabled façade largely developed in desert landscapes | [443] |
| 483. | Balloon view of the Mythen in Switzerland | [444] |
| 484. | The battlement type of erosion mountain | [445] |
| 485. | Symmetrically formed low islands repeated in ranks upon Temagami Lake, Ontario | [445] |
| 486. | Forms of crystals of a number of minerals | [454] |
| 487. | Forms of crystals of a number of minerals | [457] |
| 488. | A student’s contour map | [469] |
| 489. | Models to represent outcrops of rock | [472] |
| 490. | Special laboratory table set with a problem in geological mapping which is solved in [Figs. 47] and [48] | [472] |
| 491. | Three field maps to be used as suggestions in arranging laboratory table for problems in the preparation of areal geological maps | [473] |
| 492. | Sketch map of Western Scotland and the Inner Hebrides to show location of some points of special geological interest | [481] |
| 493. | Outline map of a geological pilgrimage across the continent of Europe | [483] |