Geology: The Science of the Earth's Crust

by William J. Miller

Next to the greatest production of coal in the United States is from the two large areas in the middle of the Mississippi Valley. It is all bituminous coal, associated with nearly horizontal strata of Pennsylvanian Age.

The scattering areas through the Rocky Mountains yield all types of coal—anthracite, bituminous, and lignite. In some of these areas the coal beds have been but little disturbed from their original horizontal position, but usually they are more or less folded along with the inclosing strata, the crustal disturbances affecting the coal beds having taken place late in the Mesozoic era and early in the Cenozoic era. Practically all of these coals are of Cretaceous and Tertiary Ages, the best being Cretaceous. Very little of the Rocky Mountain coal is anthracite.

On the Pacific Coast coal production is relatively very small. The coals are there bituminous to lignitic of Tertiary Age, usually folded in with the strata.

In Alaska there are widely distributed, relatively small coal fields, but they have been little developed. Alaskan coals range in age from Pennsylvanian to Tertiary, and in kind from anthracite to lignite.

Petroleum. Crude oil or petroleum is an organic substance consisting of a mixture of hydrocarbons, that is, it is made up very largely of the two chemical elements carbon and hydrogen, in rather complex and variable combinations. It is practically certain that petroleum has been derived by a sort of slow process of distillation from organic matter—animal or vegetable or both—in stratified rocks within the earth. Many strata, as for example carbonaceous shales, are more or less charged with dark-colored decomposing organic matter. The chemical composition itself, the kinds of rocks with which it is associated, and certain optical (microscopic) tests all point to the organic origin of petroleum. In southern California at least, certain of the oils have quite certainly been derived from the very tiny oily plants called diatoms which fill many of the strata.

Fig. 77.—Profile and structure section showing folding of strata, with included coal beds, across one of the anthracite coal fields of eastern Pennsylvania. Length of section, a little over 2 miles. (After U. S. Geological Survey.)

During the last twenty years petroleum has come to be one of the most important and useful natural products. Among the many substances artificially derived from petroleum are kerosene, gasoline, naphtha, benzine, vaseline, and paraffine. The United States leads in the production of petroleum, while southern Russia and Mexico are very important producers. In the United States the principal areas underlain with petroleum-bearing strata are the northern Appalachian field (through western Pennsylvania to central West Virginia); the Ohio-Indiana field (central Indiana to northwestern Ohio); the mid-continental field (southeastern Kansas and northeastern Oklahoma); the southeastern Texas-Louisiana field; and the southwestern California field. The total areas underlain with oil total about 10,000 square miles. In the Appalachian, Ohio-Indiana, and mid-continental fields the strata carrying oil range in age from Ordovician to Pennsylvanian, and they are mostly but little disturbed from their original horizontal position. The Texas-Louisiana oils come mainly from Cretaceous and Tertiary strata which gently downtilt under the Coastal Plain toward the Gulf. In California the oil-bearing strata are of Tertiary Age and generally considerably disturbed and folded.

Under proper conditions below the earth’s surface the derived oil accumulates in porous or fractured rocks. There must, of course, be a source from which the petroleum is derived or distilled; a porous or fractured rock formation to take it up; a cap rock or impervious layer to hold it in; and a proper geologic structure to favor accumulation. The most common porous (containing) rock is sandstone, and the most common cap rock is shale. Oil is rarely found without gas, and saline water is likewise often present. If the containing strata are horizontal, the oil and gas are usually irregularly scattered, but if tilted or folded, and the beds porous throughout, they appear to collect at the highest point possible. It was the result of observations along this line that led I. C. White to develop what is known as the “anticlinal theory.” According to this theory, in folded areas the gas collects at the summit of the fold (anticline), with the oil immediately below, on either side, followed by the water. It is, of course, necessary that the oil-bearing stratum shall be capped by a practically impervious one.